What is History?

History is Systematic Study of Past

Who is Father of History?

Herodotus (Greek)

Who is Father of Modern History?

Leopold von Ranke

ANCIENT INDIA

THE EARLY MAN

The fossils of the early human being have been found in Africa about 2.6 million years back, but there are no such evidence in India. So, it appears that India was inhabited later than Africa.
The recent reported artefacts from Bori in Maharashtra suggest that the appearance of human beings in India was around 1.4 million years ago.
The evolution of the Earth’s crust shows four stages. The fourth stage is divided into Pleistocene (most recent) and Holocene (present).
Man is said to have appeared on the Earth in the early Pleistocene.
The early man in India used tools of stone roughly dressed by crude chipping. This period is therefore, known as the Stone Age, which has been divided into:
- The Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age
- The Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age
- The Neolithic or New Stone Age

The Palaeolithic Age (500000 BC–9000 BC)

The Palaeolithic culture of India developed in the Pleistocene period of the ice age.
It seems that Palaeolithic men belonged to the Negrito race. Homo Sapiens first appeared towards the end of this phase.
Palaeolithic men were hunters and food gatherers. They had no knowledge of agriculture, fire or pottery, they used tools of unpolished, rough stones and lived in cave rock shelters. They are also called Quartzite men.
This age is divided into three phases according to the nature of the stone tools used by the people and change in the climate.
- Early or Lower Palaeolithic
- Middle Palaeolithic
- Upper Palaeolithic

Phases of the Palaeolithic Age

Age	Tools	Climate	Sites
Early	Hand axes, cleavers and choppers	Humidity decreased	Soan valley (Punjab)
Middle	Flakes-blades, points, borers and scrapers	Further decrease in humidity	Valleys of Soan, Narmada and Tungabhadra rivers
Upper	Scrapers and burin	Warm climate	Caves and rockshelters of this age have been discovered at Bhimbetka near Bhopal

The Mesolithic Age (9000 BC – 4000 BC)

It intervened as a transitional phase between the Palaeolithic Age and the Neolithic Age.
In this age, climate became warm and dry, which brought about changes in fauna and flora and made it possible for human beings to move to new areas.
The Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and food-gathering. At a later stage, they also domesticated animals.
The characteristic tools of the Mesolithic Age are microliths, pointed crescent blades, scrapers, etc. made up of stones.
Bagor in Rajasthan provides archaeological evidence for the domestication of animals.
The people of Palaeolithic and Mesolithic ages worshipped painting, which were of Palaeolithic-Mesolithic age. Pre-historic painting of Mesolithic age.

The Neolithic Age (4000 BC – 1800 BC)

The people of this age are characterised by the use of polished stone tools. They particularly used stone axes.
It is interesting that in Burzahom dogs were buried with their masters in their graves.
The Neolithic settlers were the earliest farming communities. They practised agriculture along with domestication. Noted for the cultivation of rice at the sixth millennium BC. They domesticated cattle, sheep and goats. They wove cotton and wool to make clothes.
Wheat made pottery and use of stone tools also appeared during the Neolithic age.

Neolithic men lived in caves and decorated their walls with hunting and dancing scenes. They kept their ‘fires’ in round pits. In the later phase, people made huts modelled the walls of circular and rectangular houses made of mud and reed.

Koldihwa in UP revealed a three-fold cultural sequence: Neolithic, Chalcolithic and iron age. Mehrgarh in Baluchistan is the oldest Neolithic site in India (7000 BC).
Important sites include Chirandgarh region, Central India and South of the Krishna river. Belan valley of Vindhyas and middle part of the Narmada valley shows all the three phases of Stone age.

Chalcolithic Culture (1800 BC – 1000 BC)

The end of the Neolithic period saw the use of metals. Copper was the first metal to be used.
Chalcolithic culture refers to the ‘Chalco-copper phase’. People also used bronze axes and other objects made up of copper.
Chalcolithic people were primarily rural communities. They domesticated animals and practised agriculture. They were not acquainted with burnt bricks and lived in thatched houses. They worshipped the mother Goddess and venerated the bull.
The people of Chalcolithic culture were the first to use cotton, probably which was de-ginned and woven to make clothes.
The Malwa ware is considered the richest in ceramics.
Important sites of this phase are spread in Rajasthan, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh etc.

INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION

Geographical Spread

Indus civilisation is one of the four earliest civilisations of the world along with the civilisations of Mesopotamia (Tigris and Euphrates), Egypt (Nile) and China (Hwang Ho).
The civilisation forms parts of the north-western of India and belongs to the Bronze age.
The most accepted period is 2500–1700 BC (Acc. Carbon-14 dating).
It can be divided into following sub-periods:
- Early Phase 2900–2500 BC
- Mature Phase 2500–1900 BC
- Late (Post-Urban) Phase 1900–1700 BC
Dayaram Sahni first discovered Harappa in 1921.
RD Banerjee discovered Mohenjodaro – on Mohenjo-daro in 1922.

Nomenclature of Indus Valley Civilisation

Indus Valley Civilisation as it is mostly along the Indus river.
Harappan Civilisation named by John Marshall after the first discovered site, Harappa.
Saraswati-Sindhu Civilisation as most of the sites have been found at the Hakra-Ghaggar river.

Geographical Spread (Details)

The civilisation covered parts of Sindh, Baluchistan, Afghanistan, West Punjab, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab and Maharashtra.
Multigrid and rectangular are the two sites located in Afghanistan.
Shortughai and Mundigak are located in Afghanistan.

Some New Discoveries

Garvimata in Pakistan by Rafeeq Mughal.
Dholavira in Gujarat by RS Bisht.
Alamgirpur in Uttar Pradesh by YD Sharma.
Banawali in Haryana by RS Bisht.

Town Planning

It was built on a unique feature was that cities were planned in a grid pattern, dividing the city into rectangular blocks.

Indus Cities at a Glance

City	Province	River Bank	Year of Discovery	Archaeologist(s)
Harappa	Pakistan Punjab	Ravi	1921	Daya Ram Sahni
Mohenjodaro	Sindh	Indus	1922	RD Banerjee
Suktagendor	Baluchistan	Dasht	1931	Aurel Stein
Rangpur	Gujarat	Madar	1931	M.S. Vats
Chanhudaro	Sindh	Indus	1935	M.G. Majumdar
Lothal	Gujarat	Bhogava	1957	SR Rao
Kalibangan	Rajasthan	Ghaggar	1959	B.B. Lal
Alamgirpur	Uttar Pradesh	Hindon	1954	YD Sharma
Banawali	Haryana	Ghaggar	1974	RS Bisht

The towns were divided into two parts: upper part or citadel and lower town.
The fortified citadel on the western side housed public buildings and members of ruling class.
Below the citadel on the Eastern side lay the lower town inhabited by the common people.
Underground drainage system connected all houses to the street drains made of mortar, lime and gypsum. They were covered with bricks or stone slabs and provided with ‘Manhole’. This shows developed sense of health and sanitation.
The Great Bath (Mohenjodaro) type is used for religious bathing. Steps at either end leads to the surface. There were changing rooms alongside.
The Granaries (Harappa) six granaries in a row were found in the citadel of Harappa.
Houses were made up of burnt bricks. They were often two or more storeyed, varied in size, with a square courtyard around which had a number of rooms. Windows did not face the main streets. They had tiled bathrooms.
Lothal (Gujarat) dockyard suggests maritime trade activity.

Agriculture

It was the backbone of the civilisation.
The soil was fertile due to inundation in the river Indus and flooding.
The Indus people sowed seeds in the flood plains in November, when the flood water receded and reaped their harvest of wheat and barley in April.
There used seeds of food grains: barley, wheat, peas and sesame.
They used wooden plough.

Crops Produced

Crops produced wheat, barley, dates, peas, sesame, mustard, millets, rice, jowar and cotton. Lothal and Rangpur were famous for rice.
They were first to produce cotton in the world, which Greek called as Sindon cloth from Sind. A fragment of woven cotton textile was found at Mohenjodaro.
Well irrigation in certain rural settlements was practised.

Domestication of Animals

Animal rearing was practised.
They domesticated a number of animals: oxen, asses, goats, pigs, elephants, dogs, buffaloes, sheep etc.
Camel bones are reported at Kalibangan and remains of horse from Surkotada.

Trade

Agriculture, industry and forest produce provided the basis for internal and external trade.
Trade was based on barter system. Coins were not used, bullock carts, pack animals and boats were used for transportation.
Weights and measures were made of limestone, measures were generally in cubical shape. They were in multiple of 16.
Several seals inscribed with square script have been discovered. It points that their system of measurement was in use.
Mesopotamia, Oman (Persian Gulf), Central Asia, Persia, Afghanistan and Baluchistan.

Important Sites

Gujarat: Lothal (dockyard), Sukotada, Kalibangan, Dholavira, Banawali, Rakhigarhi.
Punjab: Harappa
Sindh: Mohenjodaro

Towns Associated with Different Industries

Daimabad: Bronze utensils.
Chanhudaro: It was a bead making centre.
Harappa: Flourished pottery and shell working.
Kalibangan: Bangles factory.
Lothal: Important bead making centre.

Major Exports

Cotton goods, terracotta figurines, pottery, beads, shell objects and ivory products.

Major Imports

Items	From
Gold	Kolar (Karnataka), Afghanistan, Persia (Iran)
Silver	Afghanistan, Persia (Iran)
Copper	Khetri (Rajasthan), Baluchistan, Arabia
Lapis Lazuli	Badakhshan (Afghanistan)
Turquoise	Central Asia
Steatite	Shore-Sutkagendor, Kirthar Hills
Amethyst	Maharashtra

Art and Craft

Harappans used stone tools and were well acquainted with bronze. Bronze was made by mixing copper (from Khetri) with tin.
Bead Making was widely spread, evident from sites like Chanhudaro and Lothal.
Both men and women wore very fond of ornaments and dressing up.
Pottery both plain (red) or painted (red and black) pottery was made. Pots were decorated with human figures, plants, animals and geometrical patterns and were mass produced.
Seals were made of steatite featuring unicorn, bull, buffalo, tiger, rhinoceros, goat and elephant and on the seals they marked ownership of property.
Mesopotamia seals were found from Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan. Persian Gulf was obtained from Lothal. Mesopotamian and the Persian Gulf.

Metal Images

Bronze images were identified as a nude young dancing girl (Mohenjodaro).
Terracotta Figurines for baked clay was used to make toys, objects of worship, animals (monkey, dog, sheep, elephant) and marbles.
They also made metal images and beads.

Religious Practices

Chief Female Deity: Terracotta figure of Mother Goddess representing goddess of earth.
The chief male deity was Pashupati Mahadeva (Proto-Shiva), represented in seals as a horned figure seated in a yogic posture on a low throne and having three faces and two horns.
Lingam and yoni worship was practised.
People believed in ghosts and evil forces and used amulets for protection against them.
Fire altars are found at Lothal and Kalibangan.
Evidence of snake worship is also found.

Burial Practices

General practice was placing the dead body in the in North-South direction.
Mohenjodaro: Two forms of burial were complete, fractional and post cremation.
Kalibangan: Two forms of burial – circular and rectangular grave.
Surkotada: Pot burial.
Lothal: Double burial.
Harappa: East-West axis, R-37 and H cemeteries.

Script

It was pictographic in nature. Fish symbol is most represented.
Overlapping of letters show that it was written from right to left in the first line and then from left to right in the second line. This style is called Boustrophedon.

DECLINE OF THE CIVILISATION

The Harappan culture flourished about till 1800 BC, then it began to decline. There is no unanimity among historians regarding the exact reason for the decline of this urban civilisation. There are many different theories that show the decline of the Indus culture.

Decline of Indus Civilisation (Different Views)

Views	Thinkers
External Aggression	Wheeler, Piggot and Gordon Childe
Inundation	M.R. Sahani
Epidemic	K.V. Raman
Tectonic Disturbances (e.g., Dholavira)	Marshal and Raikes
Climate Change	H.T. Lambrick
Desertion, Scarcity of resources, Ecological imbalances	R.L. Stein and A.N. Ghosh
Floods	S.R. Rao
River Shifting	M.R. Sahani
Decline due to change in course of River Ghaggar	G.F. Dales

Burial Practices

General practice was placing the dead body in the North-South direction.
Mohenjodaro: Three forms of burial were complete, fractional and post cremation.
Kalibangan: Two forms of burial – circular and rectangular grave.
Surkotada: Pre-burial. Dholavira: Megalithic burial.
Lothal: Double burial.
Harappa: East-West axis, R-37 and H cemeteries.

Script

It was pictographic in nature. Fish symbol is most represented.
Overlapping of the letters show that it was written from right to left in the first line and then left to right in the second line. This style is called Boustrophedon.

DECLINE OF THE CIVILISATION

The Harappan culture flourished about till 1800 BC, then it began to decline. There is no unanimity among historians regarding the exact reason for the decline of this urban civilisation. There are many different theories that show the decline of the Indus culture.

Decline of Indus Civilisation (Different Views)

Views	Thinkers
External Aggression	Wheeler, Piggot and Gordon Childe
Inundation	M.R. Sahani
Epidemic	K.V. Raman
Tectonic Disturbances (e.g., Dholavira)	Marshall and Raikes
Sassan decline	Wheeler
Climate change	R.L. Stein and A.N. Ghosh
Deforestation, Scarcity of resources, Ecological imbalances	Fairservis
Floods (e.g., Mohenjodaro)	Marshall, S.R. Rao, Mackay
The destruction due to change in course of River Ghaggar	G.F. Dales

Important Harappan Sites

City	Archaeological Finds
Harappa (Gateway of City)	Two rows of six granaries with brick platform, workmen’s quarter, stone circular platform and wells, wheat, barley, peas and sesame seeds, pottery, copper and bronze objects, seals, red and black pottery, coffin burial, sculpture (dog chasing a deer), bronze male and nude dancing female figurine, and stone male torso.
Mohenjodaro (Mound of the Dead)	The Great Bath, granary, assembly hall, large public bath, discovery of male sculpture (bearded priest), clay figures of Mother Goddess, bronze dancing girl, weights and measures.
Kalibangan (Black bangles)	Decorated bricks, bangles factory, wells on both sides, every house had fire altars, ploughed field, bones of camel, lower town of Kalibangan excavated.
Chanhudaro (Industrial town)	Ink pot, lipsticks, carts with seated driver, axes of bronze, imprint of dog’s paw on a brick, only without citadel.
Daimabad	Bronze images of charioteer with chariot, ox, elephants and rhinoceros.

City — Archaeological Finds

City	Archaeological Finds
Amri	Actual remains of houses
Alamgirpur	Impression of cloth on a trough
Lothal	Rice husk, fire altars, grinding machine, tusks of elephant, granary
Mohenjodaro	Terracotta figurines, seal, bronze dancing girl, standard weights, impression of cloth on terracotta, rooms, bathrooms, well-planned drainage system
Ropar	Dog buried with human
Banawali	Oval-shaped settlement, only city with radial streets, lack of systematic drainage pattern
Surkotada	Both citadel and lower town fortified with walls
Dholavira	Only site to be divided into three parts: citadel, middle town and lower town; unique water harvesting system
Sutkagendor	Trade centre near Arabian Sea

THE ARYAN AND THE VEDIC AGE

Original Home and Identity

The word Arya literally means “of noble birth” and means respect and scholars also link it with culture and civilization.
The location of the original home of the Aryans is still controversial, but the most accepted theory is that they migrated from Central Asia in several groups between 2000–1500 BC and settled in Eastern Afghanistan, Western Pakistan, Punjab and Western UP.
The land of the Aryans is called Sapt Sindhu (the land of the seven rivers: Sindhu/Indus, Asikni, Vipasa, Parushni, Sutudri and Saraswati).

Rigvedic or Early Vedic Period (1500–1000 BC)

Early Vedic people had knowledge of rivers Yamuna, Saraswati and Ganga.
Ocean was mentioned as Samudra (referred to collection of water and not sea). Snow mountains (Himavat) and deserts (Maru) are also mentioned.
Rivers mentioned in the Rig Veda:

Rigvedic Names	Modern Names
Sindhu	Indus
Asikni	Chenab
Parushni	Ravi
Vipasa	Beas
Sutudri	Sutlej
Gomati	Gomal
Kubha	Kabul
Saraswati	Ghaggar-Hakra
Drishadvati	Chautang
Sarayu	Ghaghara

Aryans came into conflict with the indigenous inhabitants called Dasas (early inhabitants of Aryan) and Dasyus (Original inhabitants). Dasyu were indigenous people.

The Dasarajna War

This battle was fought on the bank of the Parushni river (Ravi).
It was between Sudas, the king of the Bharata tribe of Tritsu family and a confederation of ten kings (five Aryans and five non-Aryans) led by the Bharata king.
The battle is also cited as a decisive battle which led to the establishment of Bharata clan.

Economy

Aryans followed a mixed economy consisting of both agriculture and pastoralism.
They possessed better knowledge in agriculture, implements, knowledge in the Rig Veda. It was made up of wood and was drawn by the ox. They were acquainted with weaving, iron was not used.
They bartered goods.
They worshipped cattle.

Polity

The election of the King was by the tribal assembly called Samiti.
Several tribal or clan-based assemblies existed such as the Sabha, Samiti, Vidatha and Gana.
The Samiti was the National Assembly of the people, while the Sabha was Council of Elders.

Society

Kinship was the basis of society’s structure. People gave their primary loyalty to the tribe, which was called Jana.
An order form that stands for tribe is called Vis or Visha.
There was no caste system or Varna system.
Women had high status.

Religion

Indra was the most important god.
Agni and Varuna were also worshipped.
There were no temples or idol worship.

Types of Deities

God	Associated Field
Indra (Most Important)	Breaker of forts
Agni	Fire God
Varuna	Water God and upholder of natural order
Surya	God with seven horses (Sun)
Savitri	God of light to whom the Gayatri mantra is addressed
Mitra	Solar God
Pushan	God of marriage, cows and roads
Vayu	God of wind
Rudra	God of storms and father of Maruts
Ashvins/Nasatya	Gods of health, youth and medicine
Soma	God of plants
Marut	Personified storm

Types of Marriages

Eight types of marriages are practised during the Vedic period:

Brahma: Marriage of a duly adorned girl given to a man of the same varna.
Daiva: A daughter is given to a sacrificial priest as a part of dakshina.
Arsha: A token bride-price of a cow is given in place of dowry.
Prajapatya: The father gives the girl without dowry and without demanding bride-price.
Gandharva: Love marriage.
Asura: Bride was bought from her parents by paying money.
Rakshasa: Marriage by capture.
Paisacha: Marriage by abduction.

Important Rituals

Rajasuya: The king’s influence was strengthened by rituals. The king performed this sacrifice when he was prosperous and supreme power.
Ashvamedha: King performed the ritual of horse sacrifice which was considered the greatest ritual.
Vajapeya: A king performed the Vajapeya or chariot race, in which the royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen.

LATER VEDIC AGE (1000–600 BC)

(PAINTED GREYWARE PHASE)

Later Vedic texts refer to rivers Narmada, Sadanira etc. Vindhya mountains and territorial divisions of India into Aryavarta, Madhyadesha (northern India) and Dakshinapatha (southern India).
Aryavarta was extended by the Vedic Aryans.
The expansion towards East is indicated in references to Videha, Magadha migrated from the Saraswati region, crossed Sadanira and came to the land of Videha (modern Tirhut).

Polity

Formation of large kingdoms for all practical purposes, kingship became hereditary.
The king was assisted by the Purohita, the Senani, the village headman and others.
Important assemblies lost their significance.

Society

The term Brahmana first appeared in this period.
Tribal identity refers to the term Janapada.

Twelve Ratnins (Ministers)

Ratnins	Designation
Purohita	The Priest
Mahishi	Chief Queen
Yuvaraja	Crown Prince
Senani	Army Chief
Suta	Royal charioteer
Bhagadugha	Collector
Akshavapa	Accountant
Palagala	Courier
Govikartana	Head of forests
Gramani	Village head
Kshatri	Chamberlain
Sangrahitri	Treasurer

The king was accompanied by judiciary.
King administered the criminal court. Serious crimes were the killing of an embryo, stealing, breaking of Brahmin, homicide, and adultery. Treason was a capital offence.

Society

The material division of society became more clearly based on occupation; it later became hereditary.
Brahmin—The growing cult of sacrifice enormously added to the power of Brahmins.
Kshatriyas—They constituted the warrior class.
Vaishyas—They were the agriculturists, cattle rearers, traders, artisans and metal workers.
Shudras—Lowest in the social hierarchy; had no access to Vedic study.
The Ashram system was formed to attain four purusharthas (Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha). Ideals Upanishads gives the earliest reference to four ashramas i.e. Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Sannyasa.

Economy

Agriculture became the chief economic activity. Manure was wheat, rice, barley, beans and sesame.
New occupational groups emerged such as fishermen, washermen, dyers, doorkeepers and footmen.
Trade was organised into guilds, known as Srenis.
Use of metal like iron (called Krishna Ayas) was known.

Religion

Rituals became important in the cult of sacrifice.
Prajapati became the supreme God. Vishnu was conceived as the preserver and protector of people.
Pashu, responsible for well being of cattle, became the God of Shudras.
Towards the end of the Vedic age, a section of society began to resent the priestly domination.

Sixteen Mahajanapadas

Kashi
Kosala
Anga
Magadha
Vajji
Malla
Chedi
Vatsa
Kuru
Panchala
Matsya
Surasena
Assaka
Avanti
Gandhara
Kamboja

The Vedic Literature

The word Veda comes from the word vid, means to know or knowledge.
Vedic texts are divided between Shruti (based on hearing) and Smriti (based on memory).
Vedas are divided into Samhitas.

Rig Veda

One of the oldest religious texts in the world.
Collection of hymns composed around 1700 BC, contains 1028 hymns and is divided into 10 mandalas.
It is wise the earliest Mandalas, each of which is ascribed to a particular family of Rishis (Grtsamada, Visvamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadvaja, Vasishtha and Kanva).
The tenth mandala contains the famous Purusha Sukta hymn which explains that the four varnas were born from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the creator Brahma.
The third mandala contains the Gayatri Mantra which was compiled in the praise of Sun God Savitri.
Saraswati is the deity of the Rig Veda.

Sama Veda

Sama Veda derives its roots from “saman” which means melodies. It is a collection of melodies.
The hymns of the Sama Veda were recited by Udgatris at the Soma sacrifice.
It contains the Deeparda Ragas.

Yajur Veda

Deals with the procedures for the performance of sacrifices. The beliefs and rituals of non-Aryans are written in it.
Two types:
- Shukla (White) Yajur Veda
- Krishna (Black) Yajur Veda

Atharva Veda

It is a book of magical formulae. It contains charms and spells toward off evil and diseases.

The Upanishads

The term Upanishads is the later part of the Vedic literature, also known as Vedanta (end of Veda).
Also called Vedanta, because they denote the last phase of Vedic period.
They are spiritual and philosophical in nature and deal with ideas of Moksha.
They define the doctrine of Karma, Atman (soul), Brahma (God), origin of universe.
There are 108 Upanishads and the oldest are Isha, Kena, Katha and Brihadaranyaka.
Upanishads are called Vedanta.

Brahmanas

These are the prose commentaries on the Vedas and explain the rituals and sacrifices.
They are attached to each Veda.
The most important is the Shatapatha Brahmana attached to the Yajur Veda.

The Aranyakas

The sages dwelling in the forests composed the forest books called Aranyakas.
They have magical power and explain the conduct part of Brahmanas.

Vedangas

They are the limbs of the Vedas.
There are six Vedangas:
- Shiksha (phonetics)
- Kalpa (rituals)
- Vyakarana (grammar)
- Nirukta (etymology)
- Chhanda (metrics)
- Jyotisha (astronomy)

Upavedas

There are four Upavedas:

Dhanurveda (Upaveda of Yajur Veda): Deals with art of warfare.
Gandharvaveda (Upaveda of Sama Veda): Deals with art and music.
Shastrasashtra: Deals with military technology (associated with Atharva Veda).
Ayurveda (Upaveda of Rig Veda): Deals with medicine.

Philosophy

Six systems of Hindu philosophies, given by six philosophers of ancient India:

Nyaya (analysis) — Gautama
Vaisheshika — Kanada
Samkhya — Kapila
Yoga (application) — Patanjali
Purva Mimamsa — Jaimini
Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta) — Vyasa

Puranas

These include mythology, cosmology, various legends, folk beliefs, law codes and miscellaneous topics.
It refers to the change in the mode of worship (from sacrifice to idol worship), and visual aspect of deities as against worship of ideas.

Sutras

Sutra literature is divided into three classes:
- Srauta Sutra (dealing with large public sacrifices)
- Grihya Sutra (dealing with rituals connected with birth, naming, marriage)
- Dharma Sutra (dealing with rules about conduct)

Epic

Mahabharata, written by Ved Vyas, is older than the Ramayana. Originally, the Mahabharata consisted of 8800 verses then it was raised to 100000 verses. The final compilation brought the number of verses to 100000.
Ramayana, written by Valmiki originally consisted of 6000 verses, which was raised to 24000 verses.

Smritis

Dharma Shastras are the other name for the Smritis, which are the law books written in slokas form.
The important Smritis are Manu Smriti, Yajnavalkya Smriti, Narada Smriti, Brihaspati Smriti and Parasara Smriti.
Manu Dharma Shastra or Manusmriti is the oldest and most famous. Manu is supposed to be the first king and law maker.
Later on, some minor Smritis and commentaries like the Mitakshara were compiled.

PRE-MAURYAN AGE

The material advantages brought about by the use of iron implements in Eastern UP and Bihar in 6th century BC helped in the formation of large territorial states.
Use of iron tools in agriculture produced surplus, which could be taxed by the patrons to form the military and administrative needs.
Thus, nearly Janapadas sprung up in the 6th century BC, the large of which were called Mahajanapadas.

THE MAHAJANAPADAS

The Anguttara Nikaya of Sutta Pitaka, Mahavastu (Buddhist literature) and Bhagavati Sutra (Jain literature) mention the list of 16 Mahajanapadas.
They were of two types:
- Non-Monarchical/Republican States: Kamboja, Kuru, Kosala (?), Vrijji (Vajji), Panchala, Malla,

The period from 6th century BC to 4th century BC saw the struggle for supremacy amongst the four Mahajanapadas—Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti.
Ultimately, Magadha emerged as the most powerful and prosperous kingdom in North India.
The founder of Magadha was Jarasandha and Brihadratha. But the real growth started under the Haryankas, expansion took place under the Shishunagas and Nandas, and it reached its zenith under the Mauryas.
Extent: Former districts of Patna, Gaya and parts of Shahabad.

Causes of the Rise of Magadha

Advantageous geographical location of the capital cities.
Abundance of natural resources such as iron helped in preparing effective weapons.
The alluvial soil of the Gangetic plains and sufficient rainfall were very conducive for agricultural produce.
Unorthodox character of Magadhan society and ambitious rulers.

HARYANKA DYNASTY

Bimbisara (544 BC – 492 BC)

He built the capital city Rajgir (Girivraja), which was surrounded by five hills, the openings in which were closed by stone walls on all sides, making it impregnable.
He was contemporary to Gautama Buddha and Mahavira and was the first king to have a standing army.
He was known as Seniga.
He defeated Anga king Brahmadatta and strengthened his position by matrimonial alliances.

MAGADHA EMPIRE

His three wives belonged to royal families of:
- Kosala (Mahakosaladevi, sister of Prasenjit, ruler of Kashi)
- Lichchhavi (Chellana, sister of Chetaka)
- Madra clan of Punjab (Khema, daughter of Madra king)
He sent his personal physician Jivaka to his rival Avanti king Chandapradyota Mahasena of Ujjain to cure him of jaundice.
The Gandhara ruler of Taxila, Pukkusati, sent an embassy to Bimbisara.

Ajatashatru (492 BC – 460 BC)

He was the son of Chellana and Bimbisara. He occupied the throne by killing his father.
He adopted an aggressive policy of expansion and gained complete control over Kashi.
He defeated his maternal uncle Prasenjit, king of Kosala, and married his daughter Vajira.
He destroyed Vaishali (capital of the Lichchhavis) after a prolonged war of sixteen years by sowing seeds of discord among its people.
His ministers Sunidha and Vassakara helped him:
- Mahashilakantaka: a war engine that hurled big stones
- Rathamusala: a chariot fitted with a mace
He fortified Rajagriha to meet the threat from Avanti.
He also built a fort at Pataliputra (Patali village) on the banks of the river Ganges.
He patronised the First Buddhist Council, and Buddha died during his reign.

Udayin (461 BC – 444 BC)

Son and successor of Ajatashatru.
He built a fort at the confluence of the Ganga and Son rivers at Pataliputra.
He transferred the capital from Rajagriha to Pataliputra.
Udayin was succeeded by weak rulers.

Dhanananda (The Last Nanda Ruler)

During his reign, Alexander invaded North-Western India (326 BC).
However, the huge army of Dhanananda deterred Alexander from advancing towards the Gangetic Valley.
He is probably referred to as Agrammes or Xandrames in Greek texts.

SHISHUNAGA DYNASTY (412 BC – 344 BC)

Shishunaga was the minister of Nag-Dasaka and was elected by the people.
He shifted the capital to Vaishali.

Kalashoka (Kakavarna)

He succeeded Shishunaga.
He transferred the capital from Vaishali to Pataliputra.
He convened the Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali (383 BC).
Sabakami was the President of this council.

NANDA DYNASTY (344 BC – 323 BC)

Considered the first non-Kshatriya dynasty.
Ruled for about 100 years.

Mahapadma Nanda

Founder of the Nanda dynasty.
Also known as:
- Ekarat
- Ekachhatra
- Sarva-Kshatrantaka (destroyer of Kshatriyas, as per Puranas)
- Ugrasena (as per Pali texts, meaning owner of a huge army)
Regarded as the first empire builder of Indian History.
He conquered Kosala and Kalinga and is said to have brought an image of the Jina as a trophy.
He was succeeded by his eight sons, the last being Dhanananda.

FOREIGN INVASIONS

Iranian Invasion

The Achaemenid rulers of Persia invaded the North-West frontier of India.

Cyrus of Persia (558 BC – 530 BC)

First foreign conqueror to invade India.
Invaded parts of north-west India.
Destroyed the city of Capisa (north of Kabul).
Enrolled Indian soldiers in the Persian army.

Darius I

Invaded India around 516 BC.
Annexed Punjab, Sindh and areas west of the Indus.

Xerxes

Successor of Darius.
Employed Indian soldiers in wars against the Greeks.

Impacts of Iranian Invasion

Boosted Indo-Iranian trade.
Cultural exchange led to adoption of Kharosthi script (from Iran to India).
Some of Ashoka’s inscriptions in North-West India were written in this script.
Iranian influence is visible in art and architecture, especially bell-shaped capitals.

Five Instruments of Knowledge

Mati Jnana – Perception through activity of sense organs including the brain.
Avadhi Jnana – Clairvoyant perception.
Shruta Jnana – Knowledge revealed by scriptures.
Manahparyaya Jnana – Telepathic knowledge.
Kevala Jnana – Omniscience (perfect knowledge).

Sects of Jainism

After the death of Mahavira, during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya, a severe famine led to a great exodus of Jaina monks from the Ganga valley to the Deccan. This migration led to a schism in Jainism.
Bhadrabahu, who led the emigrants, insisted on the rule of nudity. His followers came to be known as Digambaras.
Sthulabhadra, leader of the monks who remained in the North, allowed his followers to wear white garments. They came to be known as Svetambaras.

Jain Church

Arya Sudharman, one of the disciples of Mahavira, became the Thera (pontiff) of the Jaina church after his death.
He was succeeded by Jambu, Sambhutavijaya and Bhadrabahu (contemporary of Chandragupta Maurya).

Spread of Jainism

In later times, Jainism was mainly concentrated in two regions:

Gujarat and Rajasthan – Svetambara sect
Mysore – Digambara sect

Importance of Jainism

Led to the growth of many regional languages like Suraseni, from which developed Marathi, Gujarati, Rajasthani and Kannada.

Causes Behind the Decline of Jainism

Extreme observance of ahimsa, penance and austerity.
Lack of patronage from later kings.
Jainas did not actively spread their religion.

Jaina Councils

Council	Year	Venue	Chairman	Royal Patron	Developments
First Jaina Council	300 BC	Pataliputra	Sthulabhadra	Chandragupta Maurya	Compilation of 12 Angas to replace 14 Purvas
Second Jaina Council	AD 512	Vallabhi	Devardhigani Kshamasramana	—	Final compilation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas

BUDDHISM

Founded by Gautama Buddha (also called Sakyamuni or Tathagata), originally known as Siddhartha.

Gautama Buddha

He was born (Symbol – lotus and bull) in 563 BC at Lumbini (of the Sakya tribe of Kapilvastu) on Vaishakha Purnima in a Kshatriya clan.
His father Suddhodana was a Sakya ruler; his mother Mahamaya died seven days after his birth, so he was brought up by his stepmother Gautami.
Married at 16 to Yashodhara, lived a married life for 13 years and had a son named Rahul.
Great Renunciation (Mahabhinishkramana) (Symbol – horse) at the age of 29 after seeing four sights: old man, sick man, dead body and an ascetic.
Nirvana / Enlightenment (Symbol – Bodhi tree) at the age of 35 at Uruvela (Bodh Gaya) under a pipal tree on the banks of the Niranjana (Phalgu) river after 49 days of meditation.
First Sermon (Dharmachakra Pravartana) (Symbol – 8-spoked wheel) at Sarnath, where his five disciples were present.
Death (Mahaparinirvana) at the age of 80 years in 483 BC at Kusinagar (Uttar Pradesh) in the Malla republic.

Major Events of Buddha’s Life

Events	Symbols
Janma (Birth)	Lotus and Bull
Mahabhinishkramana (Renunciation)	Horse
Nirvana / Sambodhi (Enlightenment)	Bodhi Tree
Dharmachakra Pravartana (First Sermon)	Wheel
Mahaparinirvana (Death)	Stupa

Teachings of Buddha

(a) Four Noble Truths (Arya Satyas)

The world is full of sorrow (Sarvam Duhkham).
The cause of sorrow is desire (Dwadasha Nidana / Pratitya Samutpada).
If desires are conquered, all sorrows can be removed (Nirvana).
This can be achieved by following the Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga).

The second truth is based on the doctrine of Pratitya Samutpada (law of dependent origination or causation).

(b) Eight-Fold Path (Ashtangika Marga)

Right understanding
Right thought
Right speech
Right action
Right means of livelihood
Right effort
Right mindfulness (awareness)
Right concentration (meditation)

(c) Three Jewels (Triratnas)

Buddha (the enlightened one)
Dhamma (doctrine)
Sangha (order)

(d) Code of Conduct

Do not covet others’ property
Do not commit violence
Do not use intoxicants
Do not speak lies
Do not indulge in corrupt practices

(e) Belief in Nirvana

Also known as Moksha or salvation.
It is the ultimate state of bliss where a person is freed from the cycle of birth and death.

(f) Belief in Ahimsa

Based on the law of Karma and the Middle Path (Madhyama Pratipada).

Buddhist Sangha

It consisted of monks (Bhikshus or Shramanas) and nuns, who acted as torchbearers of the Dhamma.
The worshippers were called Upasakas.

Sects of Buddhism

Vajrayana:
- Its followers believed that salvation could be attained through magical powers called Vajra.
- The chief divinity of this sect is Tara.
- It was mainly concentrated in Bengal and Bihar (Eastern India).
Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle)
Mahayana (Greater Vehicle)

Buddhist Scriptures

Hinayana Literature (in Pali)

Tripitakas
- Vinaya Pitaka – Rules of monastic discipline for monks
- Sutta Pitaka – Collection of Buddha’s sermons
- Abhidhamma Pitaka – Philosophical teachings of Buddha

Buddhist Councils

Council	Year	Venue	Chairman	Royal Patron	Developments
First Council	483 BC	Saptaparni Cave, Rajgriha	Mahakassapa	Ajatashatru (Haryanka Dynasty)	Compilation of Sutta Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka by Ananda and Upali
Second Council	383 BC	Vaishali	Sabakami	Kalasoka (Shishunaga Dynasty)	Split into Sthaviravadins and Mahasanghikas
Third Council	250 BC	Pataliputra	Mogaliputta Tissa	Ashoka (Maurya Dynasty)	Compilation of Abhidhamma Pitaka
Fourth Council	AD 72	Kundalvana, Kashmir	Vasumitra (Chairman), Ashvaghosha (Vice-Chairman)	Kanishka (Kushan Dynasty)	Division into Hinayana and Mahayana

Some Famous Buddhist Scholars

Ashvaghosha
Nagarjuna
Asanga
Vasubandhu
Buddhaghosa
Dinnaga
Dharmakirti

Causes of the Decline of Buddhism

Incorporation of rituals and ceremonies (which Buddhism originally opposed).
Reforms in Brahmanism and rise of Bhagavatism.
Adoption of Sanskrit instead of Pali.
Increase in idol worship, offerings and accumulation of wealth.

Importance of Buddhism

Promoted trade and commerce.
Emphasized the doctrine of Ahimsa.
Improved the condition of women and lower sections of society.
Spread Indian culture to other parts of Asia.
Promoted Pali language and education through universities like Taxila and Nalanda.

Spread of Buddhism

Mahayana spread to Central Asia, China and Japan.
Hinayana spread to Sri Lanka, Thailand and Southeast Asia.
Ashoka sent missions to Sri Lanka through his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra.
Kanishka was a patron of Mahayana Buddhism.

Bodhisattvas

Avalokitesvara / Padmapani (lotus bearer)
Vajrapani (holds thunderbolt)
Manjushri (holds books describing 10 paramitas)
Kshitigarbha (guardian of purgatories)
Maitreya (the future Buddha)
Amitabha / Amitayusha (the Buddha of heaven)

Buddhist Architecture

Buddhism takes the credit for:

First human statues to be worshipped
Stone pillars depicting the life of Buddha at Gaya, Sanchi and Bharhut
Gandhara art and beautiful images of Buddha
Cave architecture in Barabar hills (Gaya) and Western India around Nashik
Art pieces of Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda

Traditional Names of Buddhist Places

Stupa – Relics of Buddha or prominent monks
Chaitya – Prayer hall
Vihara – Residence (monastery)

Buddhist Universities

University	Location	Founder
Nalanda	Badagaon, Bihar	Kumaragupta I
Vikramshila	Bhagalpur, Bihar	Dharmapala (Pala ruler)
Somapuri	North Bengal	Dharmapala (Pala ruler)
Odantapuri	Bihar Sharif, Bihar	Gopala (Pala ruler)
Vallabhi	Gujarat	Bhallaka (Maitraka ruler)

Similarities between Buddhism and Jainism

Both opposed Brahmanical domination and caste system.
Both upheld truth, non-violence, celibacy and detachment from material comforts.
Both believed in karma and rebirth.
Both were liberal towards women.

Differences between Buddhism and Jainism

Buddhism	Jainism
Followers – Monks	Followers – Laymen
Salvation – Moderate path	Salvation – Extreme austerity
Spread outside India and declined in India	Confined to India and survived
Liberal approach	More rigid and strict
Did not believe in soul	Believed in soul

Other Heterodox Sects

Sect	Founder	Theory
Ajivikas	Gosala Maskariputra	Believed in fate (Niyati)
Amoralism	Purana Kassapa	Denied moral consequences
Ajita Keshakambalin	—	Uchchedavada (annihilationism)
Charvaka School	—	Materialism
Hindu Vaisheshika School	Pakudha Katyayana	Everything is eternal like earth, water etc.

THE MAURYAN EMPIRE

1. Origin of the Mauryas

The origin and social status of the Mauryas is debated and different traditions provide varying views:

(A) Literary Evidence

Mudrarakshasa
- Mentions Mauryas were connected with the Nandas.
- Describes them as “Vrishala” (low-born or of humble origin).
Buddhist Tradition
- Chandragupta Maurya is described as a Kshatriya.
- Belonged to the Sakya clan (same as Buddha).
- The region had many peacocks (“Mayura”), hence the name Maurya (Moriyas).
Puranas
- Refer to Mauryas as belonging to the Moriya clan.
- Sometimes considered of lower social origin.
Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman I (c. 150 CE)
- Suggests Mauryas might have been of Vaishya origin.

2. Sources of Mauryan History

Mauryan history is reconstructed through literary sources, inscriptions, and foreign accounts.

(A) Literary Sources

1. Arthashastra

Written by Kautilya, Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya.
A treatise on statecraft, administration, economy, and polity.
Written in Sanskrit.
Divided into 15 books.
Provides detailed information about:
- Administration
- Espionage system
- Taxation
- Law and governance

2. Buddhist Literature

Ashokavadana and Divyavadana
- Information about Bindusara and Ashoka’s campaigns, especially Taxila revolts.
Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa (Sri Lankan Chronicles)
- Describe Ashoka’s role in spreading Buddhism to Sri Lanka.
Jataka Tales
- Provide insights into socio-economic conditions of the period.

3. Jain Literature

Parishishta Parvan / Sthaviravali Charita by Hemachandra
- Biography of Chanakya.
- Mentions Chandragupta Maurya’s conversion to Jainism.

4. Other Literary Works

Mudrarakshasa
- Describes how Chandragupta overthrew the Nandas with Chanakya’s help.
- Provides socio-political context.

5. Foreign Accounts

Megasthenes – Indica
- Ambassador of Seleucus to Chandragupta’s court.
- Provides details about:
  - Administration
  - Society
  - Economy
- Observations:
  - Indian society divided into 7 classes (not varnas).
  - Claimed absence of slavery (debated).
  - Described urban administration and Pataliputra.

(B) Archaeological Sources: Ashokan Edicts

The most important sources are the inscriptions of Ashoka.

1. Rock Edicts

Major Rock Edicts (14 Edicts)

Contain:
- Principles of governance
- Policy of Dhamma
- Moral instructions to people

Separate Kalinga Edicts

Located at:
- Dhauli (Odisha)
- Jaugada (Odisha)
Highlight:
- Administrative reforms after Kalinga War
- Welfare measures

2. Minor Rock Edicts

Found in various parts of India.
Contain:
- Personal messages of Ashoka
- Emphasis on Dhamma
- Reference to Ashoka as “Beloved of the Gods” (Devanampriya)

3. Pillar Edicts

Total 7 Pillar Edicts.
Found at:
- Delhi-Topra
- Delhi-Meerut
- Rampurva
- Lauriya-Araraj
- Lauriya-Nandangarh
- Allahabad (Prayagraj)
Content:
- Summary of Dhamma
- Welfare measures
- Moral governance

4. Other Important Edicts

Queen’s Edict
- Mentions Karuvaki, wife of Ashoka and mother of Prince Tivara.
- Found on Allahabad Pillar.
Bairat (Bhabru) Edict – Rajasthan
- Shows Ashoka’s deep faith in Buddhism.
Rummindei Pillar Edict (Lumbini, Nepal)
- Records Ashoka’s visit to Buddha’s birthplace.
- Reduced land tax for the region.
Nigali Sagar Pillar Edict (Nepal)
- Mentions enlargement of stupa of Kanakamuni Buddha.
Barabar Cave Edicts (Gaya, Bihar)
- Donation of caves to Ajivikas sect.

Sources / Accounts

Puranas – Provide chronology and lists of Mauryan kings.
Other Accounts – Writings of Diodorus, Pliny, Plutarch (referred to Chandragupta as Androcottus), Arrian and Justin (referred to Chandragupta as Sandrocottus).

Epigraphical Evidences

Ashoka’s Edicts and Inscriptions were first deciphered by James Prinsep in 1837.
Written in Prakrit language using three scripts:
- Kharoshthi (North-West)
- Greek and Aramaic (West)
- Brahmi (Eastern India)

Quick Digest

Inscriptions of Skandagupta and Rudradaman are also found at Girnar.
Pillar Edict VII is the last edict issued by Ashoka.
Mahasthan and Sohgura copper plate inscriptions (issued by Chandragupta Maurya) deal with famine relief measures.
Latest discovery: Three Ashokan minor rock edicts from Sannati village (Karnataka).

MAURYAN EMPIRE

Chandragupta Maurya was the first Indian ruler to unite the whole of North India.
Trade and agriculture flourished during his reign.
Weights and measures were standardized, money came into use, and sanitation and famine relief measures were undertaken by the state.

Chandragupta Maurya (321 BC – 298 BC)

Also called Sandrocottus / Androcottus by Greek writers.
With the help of Chanakya, he defeated the last Nanda ruler Dhanananda and founded the Mauryan dynasty with capital at Pataliputra.
Defeated Seleucus Nicator (general of Alexander) in 305 BC.
- Seleucus ceded territory in return for 500 elephants.
- Hindukush became the boundary between the two empires.
- A matrimonial alliance was formed.
Greek ambassador Megasthenes was sent to his court.
He later embraced Jainism and went to Shravanabelagola (Chandragiri hill) with Bhadrabahu, where he died by Sallekhana (fasting unto death).

Bindusara (298 BC – 273 BC)

Known as:
- Amitrochates (Greek; from Amitraghata – slayer of foes)
- Vindupala (Chinese texts)
- Simhasena (Jain texts)
- Bhadrasara (Vayu Purana)
Extended the empire to the Deccan up to Mysore.
Antiochus I of Syria sent ambassador Deimachus to his court.
Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt sent Dionysius as ambassador.
Antiochus sent sweet wine and dried figs, but refused to send a sophist (Greek law prohibited it).
Patron of the Ajivika sect.

Ashoka (273 BC – 232 BC)

Ashoka is considered the greatest ruler of the Mauryan Empire.
He earlier served as Governor of Taxila and Ujjain.
His empire extended over almost the entire Indian subcontinent, except the extreme South.
It included regions such as Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Kashmir, and the Nepal valleys.
According to the Buddhist text Dipavamsa, Ashoka ascended the throne after a four-year succession struggle, allegedly killing 99 brothers, sparing only Tissa.

Kalinga War (261 BC)

Fought in the 9th year of Ashoka’s reign.
The war caused massive destruction and loss of life, which deeply affected Ashoka.
After the war, he abandoned the policy of Bheri-ghosha (war drum) in favour of Dhamma-ghosha (moral conquest).
However, Ashoka retained control over Kalinga, indicating that:
- He was not an extreme pacifist.
- His policy changes were also practical and administrative.

Adoption and Spread of Buddhism

Ashoka embraced Buddhism, traditionally under the guidance of Upagupta.
He sent:
- His son Mahendra
- His daughter Sanghamitra
  to Sri Lanka as missionaries, along with a sapling of the Bodhi tree.
He started Dhammayatras (religious tours) from the 11th year of his reign, visiting places like Bodh Gaya.
He appointed Dhamma Mahamatras to spread the message of Dhamma.

Ashoka’s Dhamma

Dhamma was not a religion, but a moral code of conduct.
Its main objective was to:
- Promote social responsibility
- Maintain social harmony and order

Main Principles

Respect for elders
Kindness to servants and slaves
Emphasis on truth and non-violence
Religious tolerance
Compassion towards all beings

Later Mauryas

After Ashoka’s death, the Mauryan Empire declined.
The dynasty lasted for about 137 years in total.
The empire was eventually divided into Eastern and Western parts.
The last ruler, Brihadratha Maurya, was assassinated in 184 BC by his Brahmin Commander-in-Chief Pushyamitra Shunga, who established the Shunga Dynasty.

Mauryan Administration

The Mauryan state was a highly centralized welfare state.

Central Administration

The King was the supreme authority.
He was assisted by the Mantri Parishad (Council of Ministers).

Important Officials

Yuvaraja – Crown Prince
Purohita – Chief Priest
Senapati – Commander-in-Chief
Other ministers and officials assisted in governance

Provincial Administration

Province	Capital
Uttarapatha (North-West)	Taxila
Avantipatha (West)	Ujjain
Prachyapatha (East)	Tosali (Kalinga)
Dakshinapatha (South)	Suvarnagiri
Central Province	Pataliputra

Important Major Rock Edicts

Edict	Content
MRE I	Prohibition of animal sacrifice
MRE II	Mentions Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras, Keralaputras; welfare of humans and animals
MRE III	Respect for Brahmanas and elders
MRE IV	Non-violence and good conduct
MRE V	Appointment of Dhamma Mahamatras
MRE VII	Religious tolerance
MRE VIII	Dhammayatras
MRE IX	Criticism of empty rituals; emphasis on Dhamma
MRE XII	Religious tolerance
MRE XIII	Kalinga War; shift from Bheri-ghosha to Dhamma-ghosha

Art and Architecture

According to Ananda Coomaraswamy, Mauryan art is classified into two categories:

1. Popular (Folk) Art

Sculptures of Yakshas and Yakshinis
- Yaksha of Parkham (Mathura)
- Yakshini from Vidisha
- Didarganj Yakshini (Patna)

2. Royal (Court) Art

Royal Palace of Chandragupta Maurya at Kumhrar (Patna)
- Described by Fa-Hien as divine
City of Pataliputra
Ashokan pillars, stupas, and caves

Features of Mauryan Art

Introduction of large-scale stone masonry
High polish known as Mauryan polish
Pillars represent the finest examples of Mauryan sculpture

Important Examples

Single Lion Capital – Rampurva, Lauriya Nandangarh
Four Lion Capital – Sarnath (National Emblem), Sanchi
Elephant Sculptures – Dhauli, Kalsi
Stupas
- Built to enshrine relics of Buddha
- Examples: Sanchi, Bharhut

Causes of the Fall of the Mauryan Empire

Brahmanical reaction (H.P. Shastri)
Financial crisis
Oppressive rule
Weak successors
Highly centralized administration (Romila Thapar)
Pacifist policy of Ashoka (H.C. Raychaudhuri)
Partition of the empire

Significance of Mauryan Rule

The emblem of the Indian Republic is adopted from the Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath.
Development of Gurukuls and Buddhist monasteries like Taxila and Banaras under royal patronage.
Literary developments:
- Arthashastra (Kautilya)
- Kalpasutra (Bhadrabahu)
- Kathavatthu (Buddhist text)
- Bhagavati Sutra, Acharanga Sutra, Dasavaikalika (Jaina texts)

POST-MAURYAN PERIOD

Mauryas were succeeded by:
- Foreign dynasties from Central Asia in North-West India
- Native dynasties like Shungas, Kanvas, Satavahanas in Eastern, Central and Deccan regions
Developments included:
- Gandhara Art
- Administrative systems like governorship and military organization
- The Sanskrit term Horashastra (astrology) derived from Greek word horoscope

FOREIGN STATES

The Indo-Greeks

Invasions began around 200 BC due to weak Mauryan successors.
Indo-Greeks ruled Bactria (south of Oxus river, North Afghanistan).
They occupied large parts of North-Western India and advanced up to Ayodhya and Pataliputra.

Menander (165–145 BC)

Also known as Milinda.
Capital: Sakala (modern Sialkot, Punjab).
Invaded Ganga-Yamuna Doab.
Converted to Buddhism by Nagasena.
Their dialogue is recorded in Milindapanho (Questions of Milinda).
Indo-Greeks were the first to issue coins in India.
Introduced Hellenistic art features in North-West India.

The Shakas or Scythians (1st–4th Century AD)

Followed the Indo-Greeks.
Had five branches ruling from:
- Afghanistan
- Punjab
- Mathura
- Ujjain (Western India)
- Deccan
A king of Ujjain, known as Vikramaditya, defeated the Shakas.
- This event marks the beginning of the Vikram Samvat (57 BC).

Rudradaman (AD 130–150)

Most famous Shaka ruler in India.
Repaired Sudarshana Lake in Kathiawar.
Issued the longest inscription in pure Sanskrit at Junagadh.
Other important Shaka rulers:
- Nahapana
- Ushavadata
- Chastana
- Ghamatika

Sudarshana Lake

It was constructed by Pushyagupta, the Governor of Saurashtra under Chandragupta Maurya.
Tushaspa constructed a dam on the lake during the reign of Ashoka.
First reconstruction was done by Governor Suvishakha under Shaka ruler Rudradaman.
Second reconstruction was done by Chakrapalita under Skandagupta.

The Parthians (1st to 3rd Century AD)

Originally lived in Iran, from where they moved to India and replaced the Shakas.
Occupied only a small portion of North-Western India.
The most famous Parthian king was Gondophernes.
During his reign, St. Thomas came to India to propagate Christianity.

The Kushanas (1st to 3rd Century AD)

Also known as Yuechis or Tocharians.
Nomadic people from the steppes of North Central Asia.
Their empire included parts of:
- Central Asia
- Iran
- Afghanistan
- Pakistan
- North India
First Kushana dynasty founded by Kujula Kadphises.
Vima Kadphises (second ruler) issued gold coins in India.
Kanishka founded the second Kushana dynasty.

Kanishka (AD 78 – 101)

Known as the Second Ashoka.
Most famous Kushana ruler.
Capitals: Purushapura (Peshawar) and Mathura.
Started the Saka Era (AD 78), still used by the Government of India.
Patronised the Fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir, where the Mahayana doctrine was finalised.

Scholars Patronised by Kanishka

Ashvaghosha – Buddhacharita
Nagarjuna – Madhyamika Sutra
Vasumitra – Chairman of the Fourth Buddhist Council
Charaka – Charaka Samhita
The last Kushana ruler was Vasudeva I, showing Indianisation of the dynasty.

Impacts of Central Asian Contact

Advancement in architecture and construction:
- Use of burnt bricks
- Tile roofing and flooring
- Brick wells
- Red ware pottery
Introduction of:
- Better cavalry
- New dress (tunic, trousers, coats)
- Caps, helmets and boots
Kushanas were the first to issue gold coins in India.
Kanishka controlled the Silk Route, boosting trade.
Rise of Gandhara and Mathura Schools of Art.
The famous headless statue of Kanishka belongs to Mathura School.
Vatsyayana wrote Kamasutra during this period.

Gandhara School of Art

Shows influence of Greek and Roman art.
Patronised by Shakas and Kushanas.
Specialized in:
- Buddha and Bodhisattva images
- Stupas and monasteries
Used blue schist stone.
Buddha images are gentle, graceful and compassionate.

Mathura School of Art

Inspired by Gandhara art but more refined and indigenous.
Featured:
- Nude and semi-nude female figures
- Yakshinis and Apsaras in erotic poses
Exhibited strength, masculinity, grace and religious feeling.

Amaravati School of Art

Lord Buddha was depicted in the form of a Swastika mark and later also in human form.
The ornate bull or “Nandiswara” situated in the Amaresvara Temple is also an example of Amaravati art.

NATIVE STATES

The successors of Ashoka were weak, leading to the gradual decline of the Mauryan Empire.
The last Mauryan ruler was killed by his Commander-in-Chief Pushyamitra Shunga, who founded the Shunga Dynasty.

Shunga Dynasty (185 BC – 73 BC)

Founded by Pushyamitra Shunga; ruled from Vidisha (Madhya Pradesh).
Defeated the Bactrian king Demetrius.
Performed two Ashvamedha Yajnas (Chief priest – Patanjali).
Considered a persecutor of Buddhism (though debated).
The Bharhut Stupa was built during his reign.
Greek ambassador Heliodorus visited the court of Bhagabhadra and erected a pillar in honour of Lord Vasudeva near Vidisha.
Agnimitra, a Shunga ruler, was the hero of Kalidasa’s Malavikagnimitram.

Contributions

Revival of Hindu culture, Sanskrit language, and Bhagavatism.
Patronage to Patanjali (great Sanskrit grammarian).
Compilation of Manusmriti during this period.

Later Rulers

Vasumitra
Vajramitra
Bhagabhadra
Devabhuti

(All were Brahmanas)

Shunga Art

Bharhut Stupa
Gateways and railings of Sanchi Stupa
Bhaja caves (Vihara, Chaitya, Stupa)
Nasik Chaitya
Amaravati Stupa

Kanva Dynasty (73 BC – 28 BC)

Founded by Vasudeva, who killed the last Shunga ruler Devabhuti.
Capital: Pataliputra.
Successors: Bhumimitra and Narayana.
All rulers were Brahmanas.
Last ruler Susarman was killed by Andhra king Simuka.

Chedi (Cheti) Dynasty of Kalinga

Known from the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela (third ruler).
Kharavela expanded his kingdom up to the Godavari in the South.
Recovered the Jaina image from Magadha.
Followed Jainism.
Built caves for Jain monks at Udayagiri hills near Bhubaneswar (Odisha).

Satavahana Dynasty

Identified with the Andhras mentioned in the Puranas.
Earliest inscriptions belong to the 1st century BC.
Defeated the Kanvas and established power in Central India.
Successors of Mauryas in the Deccan and Central India.
Founder: Simuka (after killing last Kanva ruler Susarman).

Gautamiputra Satakarni (AD 106 – 130)

Greatest ruler of the dynasty.
Assumed titles Raja-raja and Maharaja.
Capital: Paithan (Pratishthana) on the banks of Godavari River (Aurangabad district).

Vashishthiputra Sri Satakarni, the 24th ruler, married the daughter of the Saka Satrap Rudradaman I, but was twice defeated by him.
Yajna Sri Satakarni (AD 165–194), a later Satavahana king, recovered North Konkan and Malwa from the Saka rulers. His coins featured a ship with a double mast.
Pulumavi III was the last Satavahana ruler, succeeded by the Ikshavakus in the 3rd century AD (not BC ❗).

Important Aspects of the Satavahanas

They issued mostly lead coins (apart from copper and bronze).
Satavahanas were the first rulers to make land grants to Brahmins. There are also instances of grants to Buddhist monks, showing they promoted Buddhism as well.
Satavahana rulers called themselves Brahmins. Gautamiputra Satakarni claimed he was a true Brahmin. They performed Vedic rituals and worshipped gods like Krishna and Vasudeva.
Stupas at Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh became important centres of Buddhist culture.
Many chaityas (e.g., Karle caves, Nashik, Kanheri) and viharas were cut out of solid rock in the north-western Deccan.
The official language was Prakrit and the script was Brahmi.
Provinces were called Ahara, and officials were known as Amatyas and Mahamātyas.

The Age of the Guptas

The fall of the Kushana Empire in the mid-3rd century AD led to the rise of the Guptas.
Though smaller than the Mauryan Empire, it kept North India politically united for over a century.
This period is often called the Golden Age of Hinduism.
The Guptas belonged to the Vaishya caste.
Sri Gupta was the founder of the dynasty, followed by Ghatotkacha, then Chandragupta I. Both early rulers used the title Maharaja.

Chandragupta I (AD 319–335)

Strengthened his position through alliances and conquests.
Married the Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi and issued gold coins (Dinaras).
Started the Gupta Era (AD 320).
Controlled Magadha, Saketa, and Prayaga.
First Gupta ruler to adopt the title Maharajadhiraja.

Samudragupta

Virasena was his Commander-in-Chief during the southern campaign.
Vasubandhu, a famous Buddhist scholar, was his minister.
His military campaigns extended up to Kanchi (Tamil Nadu), where the Pallavas accepted his suzerainty.
He annexed territories in North India, but in South India he only established political supremacy without direct annexation.
His authority over Java, Sumatra and Malaya suggests he maintained a strong navy.
Samudragupta was also a poet of high merit.
Some of his coins depict him playing the veena.
He performed Ashvamedha sacrifices.
The Allahabad Pillar Inscription describes him as “Dharma Prachar Bandhu” (upholder of Brahmanical religion).
According to Chinese sources, Meghavarman, ruler of Sri Lanka, sent a mission seeking permission to build a Buddhist temple at Gaya.
He was a Vaishnavite.

Chandragupta II (AD 380 – 415)

According to Vishakhadatta’s Devichandraguptam, Samudragupta was succeeded by Ramagupta.

Ramagupta

Considered a weak ruler.
Surrendered his queen Dhruvadevi to a Shaka ruler.
The only Gupta ruler known to issue copper coins.

Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya)

Younger brother of Ramagupta.
Killed the Shaka ruler, overthrew Ramagupta and married Dhruvadevi.
Expanded the empire through:
- Military conquests
- Matrimonial alliances
  - Married Kubernaga (Naga dynasty)
  - Married his daughter Prabhavatigupta to Rudrasena II (Vakataka dynasty)
Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription (Delhi) highlights his victories over:
- Vangas (Bengal)
- Vahilkas (Bactria/Balkh)
Udayagiri Cave Inscription (by Virasena) refers to his widespread conquests.
Defeated Shaka Kshatrapa Rudrasimha III and annexed Western Malwa and Gujarat.
- This gave access to the western sea coast, boosting trade.
- Made Ujjain his second capital.
First Gupta ruler to issue silver coins.
Assumed titles: Vikramaditya and Sakari.

Court and Culture

His court had Navaratnas (Nine Gems) including:
- Kalidasa
- Amarasimha
Harisena was the court poet and minister.
Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien visited India during his reign.

Kumaragupta (AD 415 – 455)

Founder of Nalanda University.
Devotee of Lord Kartikeya.
Towards the end of his reign, the empire was attacked by the Hunas.
He died during the conflict with the Hunas.

Skandagupta (AD 455 – 467)

Successfully repulsed the Huna invasions twice.
Earned the title Vikramaditya (mentioned in the Bhitari Pillar Inscription).
Repaired and rebuilt the embankments of Sudarshana Lake.
Continuous Huna invasions weakened the Gupta economy, leading to the gradual decline of the empire after his death.

Gupta Administration and Society

During the Gupta rule, land grants such as Agrahara and Devagrahara included the transfer of royal rights over salt and mines, which were earlier a state monopoly during the Mauryan period.
Judiciary: For the first time, civil and criminal laws were clearly defined and demarcated.

Coinage

The Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins, called Dinaras in inscriptions.
Silver coins were called Rupayakas.

Important Officials

Official	Field of Work
Mahapratihari	Chief usher of the royal palace
Dandapashika	Chief officer of the police department
Mahaprajapati	Chief officer of elephant corps
Vinayasthitisthapak	Chief officer of religious affairs
Mahashvapati	Chief of cavalry
Mahadandanayaka	Minister of justice

Social Conditions

Brahmins continued to dominate and accumulated wealth through land grants and privileges.
Shudras:
- Their position improved.
- Allowed to listen to epics and Puranas.
- Allowed to worship Lord Krishna.
Varna system became more rigid due to:
- Assimilation of foreigners
- Inclusion of tribal groups into Brahmanical society
- Transformation of guilds into castes due to decline of trade and urban centers

Status of Women

Position of women declined.
First references to Sati appear in Gupta period (e.g., Eran inscription mentioning wife of Goparaja, commander of Bhanugupta).
Polygamy and pre-puberty marriages were common.
Women had no property rights, except Stridhana (jewellery and garments).

Religion

Rise of Bhagavatism (worship of Vishnu).
Bhagavad Gita emphasized the doctrine of Avatar (incarnation).
Idol worship in temples became common.
Gods were associated with their consorts:
- Parvati with Shiva
- Lakshmi with Vishnu
Gupta rulers followed a policy of religious tolerance.
Development of Vajrayana Buddhism and Tantric cults.
Buddhism declined due to loss of royal patronage.

Economy

Types of Land

Khila – Waste land
Kshetra Bhoomi – Cultivable land
Vastu Bhoomi – Habitable land
Charagah Bhoomi – Pasture land
Aprahata Bhoomi – Forest land
According to Paharpur Copper Plate Inscription of Buddhagupta, the state was the ultimate owner of land.
Poona Plates of Prabhavati Gupta mention land surveys.
Pushtapala was the officer in charge of maintaining land records.

Trade

Trade with the Roman Empire declined after 3rd century AD.
Trade with South-East Asia increased.

Ports and Trade

West Coast Ports (Trade with Mediterranean & West Asia)

Bharuch
Chaul
Kalyan
Cambay

East Coast Ports (Trade with South-East Asia)

Tamralipti
Ghantashala
Kandura

Taxes

Bhaga – King’s share of produce, paid by cultivators
Bali – Earlier voluntary offering, became an additional and oppressive tax during Gupta period
Bhoga – Periodic supplies (fruits, firewood, etc.) provided by villagers to the king
Uparika – Extra tax levied on subjects

Gupta Art

Gupta period is known as the “Golden Age of Ancient India”
Samudragupta is depicted on coins playing the veena
Chandragupta II had Navaratnas (Nine Gems) in his court:
- Kalidasa
- Amarasimha
- Dhanvantari
- Varahamihira
- Vararuchi
- Ghatakarna
- Kshapanaka
- Vetalabhatta
- Shanku
Over 2-meter high bronze Buddha images found at Bhagalpur
First clear images of Vishnu, Shiva and other Hindu gods appear
Buddha in Dharmachakra Mudra (Sarnath) and Bamiyan Buddha belong to this period

Brahmanical Image

Varaha (Boar) relief sculpture at Udayagiri caves

Paintings

Ajanta caves paintings
Bagh caves paintings (Madhya Pradesh)
Both belong to Buddhist art tradition
Gandhara school declined and regional centers developed at:
- Banaras
- Pataliputra
- Mathura

Stupas

Mirpur Khas (Sindh)
Ramagiri (Odisha)
Dhamekh Stupa (Sarnath)

Gupta Architecture

Beginning of major temple styles:
- Nagara style (North India)
- Dravida style (South India)
Key features:
- Garbhagriha (sanctum)
- Shikhara (tower)
- Square sanctum with pillared porch

Religious Literature

Hindu Texts

Revised texts:
- Vayu Purana
- Vishnu Purana
- Manusmriti
- Ramayana
- Mahabharata
New texts:
- Narada Smriti
- Parashara Smriti
- Katyayana Smriti
- Brihaspati Smriti

Jain Texts

Nyayavatara by Siddhasena

Buddhist Texts

Abhidharmakosha by Dignaga
Visuddhimagga by Buddhaghosa

Literature & Drama

Mrichchhakatika (The Clay Cart) – Story of Charudatta and Vasantasena, depicting urban life

Quick Digest

Brahmasiddhanta translated into Arabic as “Sindhind”
Ritusamhara, Meghaduta, Raghuvamsha are epics (not plays)
Bhasa wrote 13 plays
Development of Sanskrit grammar based on Panini and Patanjali
Amarakosha compiled by Amarasimha

Other Literary Works

Author	Book
Shudraka	Mrichchhakatikam
Bharavi	Kiratarjuniya
Dandin	Dashakumaracharita and Kavyadarsha
Bhasa	Svapnavasavadattam, Charudatta
Vishakhadatta	Mudrarakshasa, Devichandraguptam
Vishnu Sharma	Panchatantra and Hitopadesha
Amarasimha	Amarakosha
Ishwar Krishna	Sankhya Karika
Vatsyayana	Kamasutra (earliest book on sex)
Bhatti	Ravanavadha
Varahamihira	Panchasiddhantika, Brihatsamhita

Astronomy and Science

Aryabhata (great mathematician):
- Wrote Aryabhatiyam and Surya Siddhanta
- Explained the place value system and use of zero (0)
Varahamihira:
- Wrote Panchasiddhantika and Brihatsamhita
- Stated that the Moon revolves around the Earth and both move around the Sun
Brahmagupta:
- Great mathematician
- Indicated the idea of gravitation in Brahmasiddhanta
Vagbhata:
- Distinguished physician
Dhanvantari:
- Famous for knowledge of Ayurveda
Romaka Siddhanta:
- A book on astronomy
Palakapya:
- Wrote Hastyayurveda (treatise on diseases of elephants)
Bhaskara:
- Wrote Mahabhaskariya and Laghubhaskariya

Pushyabhuti / Vardhana Dynasty

Harsha belonged to the Pushyabhuti (Vardhana) dynasty, which ruled from Thaneswar.
The Pushyabhutis were originally feudatories of the Guptas, but became independent after the Huna invasions.
Prabhakaravardhana (AD 580–605) was the first important ruler.
He was succeeded by Rajyavardhana (AD 605–606).
Grahavarman (Maukhari ruler of Kannauj), husband of Rajyashri (sister of Rajyavardhana), was killed by Devagupta (ruler of Malwa) in alliance with Shashanka (ruler of Bengal).
Rajyavardhana killed Devagupta but was himself killed by Shashanka in AD 606.

Harshavardhana (AD 606–647)

Harsha, also known as Siladitya, ascended the throne in AD 606.
The Harsha Era begins from his accession.
He shifted his capital to Kannauj.
The early history of his reign is known from the book Harshacharita written by Banabhatta.
Harsha is often called the last great Hindu emperor of India, though:
- He was not strictly orthodox in religion
- He did not rule the entire Indian subcontinent
In Eastern India, he faced opposition from Shashanka, the Shaivite ruler of Gauda (Bengal), who is said to have cut down the Bodhi Tree at Bodh Gaya.
Harsha defeated Dhruvasena II (continued in next part…)

Harshavardhana (Continued)

Harsha was defeated in the Deccan by Pulakesin II, the Chalukyan king of Vatapi.
His administration became more feudal and decentralised.
The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang) visited India during his reign.
- He recorded that Harsha’s revenue was divided into four parts:
  1. For the king
  2. For scholars
  3. For officials
  4. For religious purposes
Harsha celebrated a grand religious assembly at Prayag (Allahabad) every five years.
After his death in AD 647, the empire disintegrated into smaller states.
- His minister Arunashva usurped the throne.
Harsha was a Shaivite, but he was tolerant towards other religions.
He granted revenue of 200 villages for the maintenance of Nalanda University.
It is said that Harsha brought the “Five Indies” under his control:
- Punjab
- Kannauj
- Bengal
- Bihar
- Orissa

Tripartite Struggle

The struggle for supremacy among:
- Palas
- Gurjara-Pratiharas
- Rashtrakutas
This conflict was for control over Kannauj (Farrukhabad district, Uttar Pradesh).
It took place around the end of the 8th century AD.

Art and Architecture

Vesara (Deccan) Style

Developed by the Chalukyas.
Examples:
- Temples at Aihole (known as “town of temples”)
- Jinendra (Meguti) Temple
- Vishnu Temple
- Lad Khan Temple (dedicated to Surya)
- Durga Temple
- Papanatha Temple (Pattadakal)
- Virupaksha Temple (Pattadakal)
- Sangamesvara Temple

Pallava Art (Dravida Style)

Temple architecture influenced regions like Java, Cambodia and Annam.

Examples

Bhairavakonda Temple
Ananteshvara Temple (Undavalli)
Mandapa temples
Ratha temples of Mamallapuram
Kailasanatha Temple (Kanchi)
Vaikuntha Perumal Temple (Kanchi)
Shore Temple (Mamallapuram)
Famous sculptures:
- Descent of the Ganges
- Arjuna’s Penance (Mamallapuram)

Rashtrakuta Style

Famous example:
- Kailasa Temple at Ellora (dedicated to Shiva), built by Krishna I

Hoysala Style

Example:
- Hoysaleswara Temple at Dwarasamudra (Halebidu)

Dynasty	Capital	Founder	Famous Rulers	Other Features
Palas (Eastern India)	Pataliputra, Gaur	Gopala	Dharmapala revived Nalanda University and founded Vikramshila University; defeated Bhoja (Pratihara), Amoghavarsha (Rashtrakuta) and won Kannauj. Devapala won Orissa and Assam. Mahipala defeated by Rajendra Chola.	They traded with South-East Asia and were replaced by Senas in Bengal.
Gurjara Pratiharas (SW Rajasthan) (AD 733–1019)	1. Jodhpur 2. Malwa	Harichandra	Mihir Bhoja worshipped Lord Vishnu and adopted the title Adi Varaha.	Originated in the Gevanta region of Rajasthan.
Vakatakas (Deccan and Central India)	Vatsagulma, Paunar	Vindhyashakti	Pravarasena I performed four Ashvamedha Yajnas.	Chandragupta II married his daughter Prabhavati to the Vakataka king Rudrasena.
Eastern Gangas of Orissa	Kalinganagar, Cuttack	Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva	Narasimha Deva I built the Sun Temple at Konark.	Anantavarman built the Jagannath Temple at Puri.
Western Gangas (AD 350–999)	Kolar, Talakad	Konganivarman Madhava	Durvinita	Constructed Jain monuments at Shravanabelagola.
Senas of Bengal	Vikrampura, Vijayapura	Vijayasena	Ballalasena, Lakshmanasena	Overthrown by the Deva dynasty.
Hoysalas	Dwarasamudra	Vishnuvardhana	Vira Ballala defeated the Chalukyan ruler Someshvara IV.	Hoysala art and architecture reached great heights; intricate carvings are a major feature.
Rashtrakutas (AD 750–1142)	Manyakhet (Malkhed)	Dantidurga (earlier served the Chalukyas of Badami)	Amoghavarsha I – compared to Vikramaditya; patron of literature; wrote Kavirajamarga and Prashnottara Ratnamalika.	Built the rock-cut Kailasa temple at Ellora (dedicated to Shiva), one of the finest monuments of India.
Dynasty	Capital	Founder	Famous Rulers	Other Features
Pallavas (AD 560–903) of Tondaimandalam (land of creepers)	Kanchi	Simhavishnu	Narasimhavarman I (AD 630–668) – Occupied Chalukyan capital at Vatapi and assumed the title Vatapikonda.	They were orthodox Brahmanical Hindus. Both the Chalukyas and Pallavas struggled for supremacy over land between Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers.
Chalukyas of Badami	Vatapi (Badami)	Pulakesin I	Pulakesin II – Contemporary of Harsha; checked Harsha’s expansion in the Deccan but was later defeated and killed by Pallava ruler Narasimhavarman I. Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang visited his kingdom.	Many paintings and sculptures of Ajanta and Ellora caves were completed during this period. They perfected stone-building techniques without mortar.
Chalukyas of Kalyani	Kalyani	Tailapa II (defeated Parmar king Munja)	Somesvara I (AD 1043–1068) – Shifted capital from Manyakhet to Kalyani. Vikramaditya VI (AD 1070–1126) – Started the Chalukya-Vikrama era.	Bilhana, author of Vikramankadevacharita and Mitakshara (on Yajnavalkya Smriti), adorned his court.
Yadavas	Devagiri	Bhillama	Ramachandra	Ramachandra was defeated by Malik Kafur.

Additional Notes (from top section)

Krishna I (Rashtrakuta ruler) constructed the Kailasa Temple at Ellora (Dravidian style).
Krishna III set up a pillar of victory and a temple at Rameshwaram.

Sangam Age (AD First–Third Century)

The land south of the Krishna River was divided into three kingdoms.

Kingdoms of Sangam Age

Kingdom	Location	Capital	Emblem	Famous Port	Famous Rulers	Other Features
Chola (Cholamandalam)	North-East of Pandyas between Penner and Vellar rivers	Uraiyur (famous for cotton trade) and Puhar	Tiger	Puhar	Elara – earliest known Chola ruler; conquered Sri Lanka and ruled for 50 years. Karikala – founded capital at Puhar/Kaveripattinam and built embankments along river Kaveri (Kallanai)	Maintained an efficient navy. Economy based on cotton trade. Later destroyed by Pallavas from the North.
Chera	Parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu	Vanji or Karur	Bow	Muziris, Tondi, Bandar	Uthiyanjeral (Udiyanjeral) – early Chera ruler. Senguttuvan (Red Chera) – greatest ruler; expanded northward and built temple of Kannagi; founded Pattini cult	Strong trade with Romans; Roman settlements at Muziris; temple of Augustus built there.
Pandya	Southernmost part of India	Madurai	Carp (fish)	Korkai, Saliyur	Mudukkudumi – earliest known ruler. Nedunjeliyan – important ruler; associated with story of Kovalan and Kannagi	First mentioned by Megasthenes; ruled by a woman (according to him). Also mentioned in Ramayana and Mahabharata.

The Pandyan kings profited from trade with the Roman Empire and sent embassies to Roman emperors Augustus and Trajan.

Sangam Regions

Panchtinai (Five Tamil Regions and Occupations)

Tamil Regions	Inhabitants	Occupation
Kurinji (hilly backwoods or montane)	Kuravar, Vetar	Hunting, Gathering
Palai (pastoral tract)	Eyinar, Maravar	Cattle lifting, Highway robbery
Mullai (pastoral tract)	Ayar, Idaiyar	Shifting agriculture, Animal husbandry
Marutam (wetland)	Ulavar, Vellalar	Plough agriculture
Neital (littoral/coastal)	Paratavar, Valayar	Fishing, Salt extraction

Sangam Literature

The word Sangam is associated with a college or assembly of Tamil scholars and poets, which flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandyan kings.
The whole Sangam age is called the Golden or Augustan Age.
According to Tamil sources, the father of Tamil literature is Agastya.

Important Works:

Silappadikaram (meaning “the jewelled anklet”) by Ilango Adigal – deals with the love story of Kovalan and Madhavi; also called the Iliad of Tamil poetry.
Manimekalai – one of the two greatest epics and a sequel to Silappadikaram, written by Seethalai Sattanar.
Seevaga Chintamani (Sivaga Sindamani) – a third epic by Jaina author Tiruttakkadevar; contains elements of Jainism.
Bharatam – written by Perudevanar.

Sangam Economy

Land was very fertile with proper irrigation facilities.
The chief local god was Murugan, also known as Subramaniya.

Revenue Terminologies

Karai – Land tax
Irai – Tribute paid by feudatories and booty collected in war
Iravu – Extra demand or forced gift
Ulgu – Customs duties
Variyar – Tax collector

Tamil Sangams

Sangam	Venue	Chairman	Surviving Text
1st	Ten-Madurai	Agastya (founder)	—
2nd	Kapatapuram	Tolkappiyar (later chairman)	Tolkappiyam
3rd	North Madurai	Nakkirar	Ettutogai, Patinenkilakanakku, Pattupattu

Important Sangam Works

Tolkappiyam by Tolkappiyar – Tamil grammar
Tirukkural (Kural) by Tiruvalluvar – called the Fifth Veda or Bible of Tamil land; explains Dharma, Artha, Kama, Moksha
Agattiyam – grammar of letters and life in three parts, written by Agastya

The Cholas

The ancient capital of the Cholas was Palayarai.
Vijayalaya revived the Chola Empire in the 9th century AD; took the title Narkesari.
Aditya Chola defeated the Pallava king Aparajita, captured Tondamandalam, and took the title Maduraikonda; built a Shiva temple at Tanjore.
Parantaka I established authority over the northeastern part of Sri Lanka; his copper plate inscriptions describe administration.
Rajaraja I (AD 985–1014):
- Attacked Sri Lanka
- Allowed Shailendra king to build Chudamani Vihara at Nagapattinam
- Built Rajarajeshwara Temple (Saiva temple) at Tanjore
- Known as Rajaraja the Great
Rajendra I (AD 1014–1044):
- Conquered Sri Lanka
- Made Anuradhapura his capital

Rajendra I (continued)

He defeated the Pala king Mahipala and took the title Gangaikondachola.
He built the Cholamandalam lake and the city of Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
He conquered Java, Sumatra and Malaya from the Shailendra king.
Rajendra III was the last king of the Chola dynasty.

Other Aspects of the Cholas

Administration

The Chola Empire was divided into mandalams, and then into taluks.
The most important feature was local self-government.
Each village was divided into 30 wards.
Several committees were formed under the Gram Sabha for various purposes.

Chola Temples

Temple	Location	Builder
Kailashnath Temple	Kanchipuram	King Rajasimha
Brihadeshwara Temple	Tanjore	Rajaraja I
Koranganatha Temple	Srinivasanallur	Parantaka I
Airavateshwara Temple	Darasuram	Rajaraja II
Kampaheshwara Temple	Tribhuvanam	Kulottunga III
Temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram	Gangaikonda Cholapuram	Rajendra I

Other Features

The Cholas maintained a strong navy.
Their gold coin was called Kasu or Kalanju.

Literature

Madhava wrote a commentary on the Rig Veda.
Jayankondar wrote Kalingattuparani.
Sekkilar wrote Periyapuranam in the court of Kulottunga I.
Kamban, Kuttana and Pugalendi were known as the three gems of Tamil poetry.
Kamban wrote Ramavataram (Kamba Ramayana).

Architecture

The dancing figure of Shiva (Nataraja) was a major contribution of the Chola period.
The Chola temple style is called the Dravida style.
The Vimana (tall pyramid tower) dominated the structure.
Other important parts: Gopuram and Garbhagriha.
Famous temples include Vijayalaya Choleswara and Nageshwar (Koranganatha) Temple.

Religious Developments

Vaishnavism

Lord Vasudeva was first worshipped in Western India.
The Besnagar inscription (2nd century BC) shows royal patronage to this cult.
Vasudeva was later identified with Narayana and Krishna.
Chandogya Upanishad mentions Krishna as the son of Devaki and student of Rishi Ghora Angirasa.
Matsya Purana refers to the ten incarnations (Dashavatara) of Vishnu.
The cult emphasized Bhakti (devotion) and Ahimsa (non-violence).

Shaivism

Shiva is identified with the Rigvedic god Rudra.
Worshipped in the form of Linga (phallus).
References to Linga worship are found in Matsya Purana and Mahabharata.
The Gudimallam Linga is considered the oldest idol of Shiva (found in Andhra Pradesh).
Mahabhashya of Patanjali refers to the Shaiva cult as Shiva Bhagavata.
Vamana Purana mentions four schools of Shaivism:
- Pasupata
- Shaiva
- Kapalika
- Kalamukha
Pasupata is the oldest sect, founded by Lakulisa.

Shaiva Sects (continued)

Kalamukha – another Tantric cult that flourished in Karnataka.
Aghoris – worshipped goddesses Sitala and Kali.
Kanphata (Gorakhnathi) cult – propounded by Gorakhnath in Eastern Bengal.
Shuddha Shaiva cult – expounded by Srikantha Sevacharya.
Virashaiva or Lingayat cult – founded by Basava.
The Rashtrakutas built the Kailasa temple at Ellora and depicted Shiva and Nandi on their coins.
The Kushana kings also inscribed Shiva and Nandi on their coins.

Shakti Dharma

Refers to the worship of the female deity (Shakti).
First mentioned in the Mahabharata.
The Devi hymn in the 10th Mandala of the Rig Veda is devoted to goddess worship.

Islam

Founded by Hazrat Muhammad.
Born in AD 570 at Mecca to Amina (mother) and Abdullah (father).
Married Khadija (a widow) at the age of 25.
His daughter Fatima was married to Ali.
Attained enlightenment in AD 610 in the Hira Cave near Mecca.
His teachings are compiled in the Holy Quran.
Hijra (AD 622): Migration from Mecca to Medina; marks the beginning of the Hijri Era.
Died on 8th June, AD 632 and was buried at Medina.
After his death, followers split into Shia and Sunni sects.
His successors were called Khalifa (Caliph).
His birthday is celebrated as Eid-Milad-un-Nabi.
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk later abolished the designation of Khalifa.

Christianity

Founded by Jesus Christ.
Born to Mary (Mother Mary) and Joseph.
His birthday is celebrated as Christmas.
His first two disciples, Andrew and Peter, were executed in AD 33 by the Roman governor.
The Bible is the holy book.
The Cross is the holy symbol.

Zoroastrianism (Parsi Religion)

Founded by Prophet Zoroaster (Zarathustra).
Teachings are compiled in the Zend Avesta.

Some Important Temples of Ancient India

Temple	Builder	Dynasty
Jagannath Temple, Puri	Narsinghdev	Ganga
Sun Temple, Konark	Yashovarman	Ganga
Kandariya Mahadev Temple, Khajuraho	Krishna I	Chandela
Kailash Temple, Ellora	Krishna I	Rashtrakuta
Elephanta Caves	Narsimhavarman I	Rashtrakuta
Mamallapuram Temples	Narsimhavarman II	Pallava
Kailashnath Temple, Kanchi	Narsimhavarman II	Pallava
Vaikuntha Perumal Temple, Kanchi	Narsimhavarman II	Pallava
Jain Temple, Dilwara	Vimala (minister of Solanki ruler)	Solanki

MEDIEVAL INDIA

The Rajputs

The Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty (Pariharas) were from South Rajasthan.
They emerged as a powerful force in Northern India during the 9th and 10th centuries AD.

Origin

Four Rajput clans are believed to have originated from a sacrificial fire pit (Agnikula) near Mount Abu. These include:
- Chauhans (East Rajasthan)
- Solanki dynasty (Kathiawar)
- Paramara dynasty (Malwa)
- Pratihara dynasty
Another theory suggests Rajputs were of foreign origin, who settled in Western India after invasions.

Main Rajput Clans

Suryavansha (Sun dynasty)
Chandravansha (Moon dynasty)

Some Important Rajput Kingdoms

Kingdom	Capital(s)	Founder
Chauhan/Chahaman (Delhi–Ajmer)	Delhi, Ajmer	Vasudeva
Paramara (Malwa)	Ujjain, Dhar	Bhoja
Pratihara (Kannauj)	Avanti, Kannauj	Nagabhata I
Rashtrakuta (Malkhed)	Manyakheta	Dantidurga
Solanki/Chalukya (Kathiawar)	Anhilwara	Mularaja I
Kalachuri (Chedi)	Tripuri	Kokkala I
Chandela (Jejakabhukti)	Khajuraho, Mahoba	Nannuka
Gahadawala/Rathor (Kannauj)	Kannauj	Chandradeva
Tomar (Delhi, Haryana)	Dhillika	—
Guhilota/Sisodiya (Mewar)	Chittor	Bappa Rawal

Some Important Rajput Rulers

Jaichand (1169–1194 AD)
- Assisted Muhammad Ghori against Prithviraj Chauhan in the Second Battle of Tarain.
- Later killed by Ghori in the Battle of Chandawar.
Prithviraj Chauhan (1178–1192 AD)
- Fought two battles with Muhammad Ghori:
  - First Battle of Tarain – Victory
  - Second Battle of Tarain – Defeat
Bhoja (1010–1055 AD)
- Great scholar and patron of literature, known as Kaviraja.

Architectural Works

Kandariya Mahadeva Temple – built by Chandellas (c. AD 1000).
Dilwara Temples – built under Solanki rulers (West Indian style).
Angkor Wat – built by Suryavarman II, dedicated to Vishnu.
Sun Temple (Odisha).
Lingaraja Temple (Odisha).

Literary Works

Kathasaritsagara – by Somadeva
Vikramankadeva Charita – by Bilhana
Rajatarangini – by Kalhana
Gita Govinda – by Jayadeva
Chachnama

Arab Conquest of Sindh

Muhammad bin Qasim invaded India in AD 712.
He was the first Muslim ruler to successfully invade India.
He defeated Raja Dahir, the ruler of Sindh.
After conquest, Sindh became part of the Umayyad Caliphate.

Turkish Invasions

Mahmud of Ghazni

With the decline of the Abbasid Caliphate, many Turkish states emerged.
One such state was founded by Alptigin at Ghazni around AD 933.
At that time, Punjab and North-West India were ruled by Jaipal of the Hindu Shahi dynasty.
Sabuktigin defeated Jaipal.
Mahmud of Ghazni (born AD 971) became ruler in AD 998.

His Invasions

He conducted 17 raids into India.
In AD 1001, he defeated Jaipal again.
Jaipal’s son Anandapala succeeded him.
A decisive battle was fought at Waihind (AD 1008–09), where Mahmud defeated Anandapala.
Mahmud plundered major cities and temples including:
- Nagarkot
- Thanesar
- Kannauj
- Mathura
- Somnath Temple
He attacked Somnath in AD 1025 (16th raid).
In AD 1026, he defeated the Jats.
He died in AD 1030.

Nature of His Raids

His main objective was plunder and loot, not empire building in India.

Quick Digest

Considered a hero of Islam by medieval historians.
Played a role in the Iranian cultural revival.
The peak of this revival is seen in Shahnameh by Ferdowsi.
He patronized:
- Ferdowsi
- Al-Biruni – wrote Kitab al-Hind
- Utbi

Muhammad Ghori

After Mahmud, the Ghaznavid state weakened.
The Seljuk Empire rose but later declined.
The Ghurid Empire became powerful under Alauddin Husain, known as the “World Burner”.
In 1173, Muhammad of Ghor (Muizzuddin Muhammad) became ruler.

Early Campaigns

Conquered Multan and Sindh.
In 1178, attacked Gujarat but was defeated by the Solanki dynasty.
He then strengthened his base in Punjab by conquering:
- Peshawar
- Lahore
- Sialkot

Rise of Chauhans

The Chauhan dynasty were rising in power.
They captured Delhi from the Tomara dynasty in the mid-12th century.

Arab Conquest of Sind

Muhammad Bin Qasim Invasion (AD 712)
Muhammad Bin Qasim of Iraq was the first Muslim to invade India. He defeated the ruler of Sind, Dahir, and the province was given to the Umayyad Caliphate.

Turkish Invasions

Mahmud of Ghazni

Towards the close of the 9th century AD, the vast Arab Empire broke up. The Turks, who gained control over the Khalifas of Baghdad, established many independent principalities.
One such Turkish state was founded by Alaptigin with Ghazni as its capital around AD 933.
Punjab and North-West India were ruled by Jaipal of the Shahi dynasty. Subuktigin, ruler of Ghazni, defeated Jaipal.
Mahmud of Ghazni, son of Subuktigin, was born in AD 971 and became ruler in AD 998.
Mahmud is remembered for his raids and temple destructions. He is said to have made 17 invasions into India.
In AD 1001, he defeated Jaipal again.
Anandapala, Jaipal’s son, succeeded him. A decisive battle between Mahmud and Anandapala took place in AD 1008–09 at Waihind.
Mahmud plundered several cities including:
- Nagarkot
- Thaneshwar
- Kannauj
- Mathura
- Somnath
He attacked the Somnath Temple in AD 1025 (16th raid).
In AD 1026, he defeated the Jats.
He died in AD 1030.
His main objective was plunder and loot, not territorial expansion in India.

Quick Digest

Mahmud is considered a hero of Islam by medieval historians.
He was associated with the revival of Iranian culture.
His court included:
- Firdausi (poet, author of Shah Namah)
- Al-Biruni (scholar, author of Kitab-ul-Hind)
- Utbi (historian)

Muhammad Ghori

After Mahmud, the Ghaznavid Empire weakened. The Ghurids rose to power.
Alauddin of Ghur destroyed Ghazni and was called “World Burner.”
In 1173, Muhammad Ghori (Muizzuddin Muhammad) became ruler of Ghazni.
He conquered Multan and Sind.
In 1178, he attacked Gujarat but was defeated.
Later, he captured:
- Peshawar
- Lahore
- Sialkot

Conflict with Prithviraj Chauhan

Prithviraj Chauhan became ruler of Ajmer at a young age and expanded his kingdom.

Battles of Tarain

First Battle of Tarain (1191)

Prithviraj Chauhan defeated Muhammad Ghori.

Second Battle of Tarain (1192)

Muhammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan.
This battle is a turning point in Indian history.
Jaichand of Kannauj did not support Prithviraj due to personal rivalry.
Prithviraj was later executed.
In 1194, Jaichand was also defeated at the Battle of Chandawar.

Causes of Turkish Success

Political disunity among Rajputs
Lack of central authority
Weak frontier defense
Strong, organized Turkish military

Delhi Sultanate

Slave (Ilbari) Dynasty (1206–1290)

After Muhammad Ghori’s death, his slaves and successors ruled India.
Known as Slave Dynasty or Ilbari Dynasty.

Qutubuddin Aibak (1206–1210)

Originally a slave of Muhammad Ghori
Became Viceroy and later ruler of Delhi
Capitals: Lahore and Delhi
Known as “Lakh Baksh” (giver of lakhs)

Contributions

Built:
- Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque (Delhi)
- Adhai Din ka Jhopra (Ajmer)
Started construction of Qutub Minar in honour of Sufi saint Khwaja Qutub-ud-Din Bakhtiyar Kaki
Patron of scholars:
- Hasan Nizami (Taj-ul-Maasir)
- Fakhruddin (Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi)
Died after falling from a horse while playing polo (chaugan).

Aram Shah (AD 1210)

After Qutubuddin Aibak’s death, his son Aram Shah succeeded him.
Aram Shah proved to be incompetent.
Some nobles invited Aibak’s son-in-law and Governor of Badaun, Iltutmish, to ascend the throne.
Iltutmish deposed Aram Shah and secured the throne for himself.

Iltutmish (AD 1210–1236)

Considered the greatest ruler of the Slave Dynasty and the real consolidator of Turkish rule in India.
Made Delhi the capital instead of Lahore.
Was the son-in-law of Qutubuddin Aibak.

Achievements

Suppressed revolts of nobles and consolidated his rule.
In AD 1215, defeated Yaldoz who had declared himself ruler of Ghazni.
Led expeditions against Rajputs in:
- Ranthambore
- Gwalior
- Ajmer
- Malwa

Mongol Threat

During his reign, Genghis Khan invaded India’s northwest.
Iltutmish saved Delhi Sultanate by refusing shelter to Jalaluddin Mangburni.

Administrative and Other Contributions

Got recognition from the Caliph of Baghdad.
Completed the Qutub Minar.
Formed a group of 40 nobles called Turkan-i-Chahalgani (Chalisa).
Introduced the Iqta system (land assignment in lieu of salary).
Introduced coins:
- Silver Tanka
- Copper Jital

Cultural Contributions

Patronised Minhaj-us-Siraj, author of Tabaqat-i-Nasiri.
Known as the father of tomb building (built Sultan Garhi).

Rukunuddin Firoz (AD 1236)

Iltutmish had nominated his daughter Razia Sultan as successor.
However, nobles opposed a woman ruler and placed his son Rukunuddin Firoz on the throne.
He proved inefficient and left administration to his mother Shah Turkan.
Eventually, he was removed and Razia was made ruler.

Razia Sultan (AD 1236–1240)

First and only Muslim woman ruler of medieval India.

Achievements

Suppressed rebellions in:
- Multan
- Lahore
Defeated the wazir Nizam-ul-Mulk Junaidi.
Conducted expeditions against Rajputs (Ranthambore).

Policies

Abandoned purdah and appeared unveiled in court.
Tried to create a loyal nobility.
Appointed a non-Turk, Yakut, to a high position → caused opposition.

Downfall

Faced rebellion by Altunia.
Yakut was killed and Razia imprisoned.
Later, Razia married Altunia and marched to Delhi.
In AD 1240, she was defeated and assassinated near Kaithal (Haryana).

Ghiyasuddin Balban (AD 1265–1287)

Ghiyasuddin Balban ascended the throne in 1265 after eliminating rivals from Iltutmish’s family.
He was a member of the Chahalgani (group of 40 nobles) but later destroyed its power.
Restored the prestige of the monarchy.

Administration & Policies

Created a strong centralised army.
Established Diwan-i-Arz (military department).
Separated military from finance (Diwan-i-Wazarat).
Developed a strong spy system.

Theory of Kingship

Declared Sultan as “Representative of God on Earth”.
Adopted Persian court traditions:
- Zil-i-Ilahi (Shadow of God)
- Niyabat-i-Khudai (Deputy of God)
Introduced court practices like:
- Sijda (prostration)
- Paibos (kissing the king’s feet)

Other Features

Followed strict court discipline (no laughing/joking).
Started Navroz festival.
Followed the policy of “Blood and Iron” (strict rule).
Patronised Amir Khusro.

Kaiqubad (AD 1287–1290)

Grandson of Ghiyasuddin Balban.
Placed on the throne by Fakruddin (Kotwal of Delhi).
Later killed by Khalji nobles.
His death marked the end of the Slave (Ilbari) Dynasty.

THE KHALJI DYNASTY (AD 1290–1320)

Jalaluddin Khalji (AD 1290–1296)

Jalaluddin Khalji founded the Khalji dynasty.

Policies

First Sultan to clearly state that:
- The state should be based on support of the people.
- India could not be a purely Islamic state due to the Hindu majority.
Followed a policy of tolerance and mild rule.
Avoided harsh punishments.

Important Event

His nephew Alauddin Khalji invaded Devagiri (1294).

Personal Relations

Married his daughter to Alauddin Khalji.
Also maintained relations with Mongols (marriage alliances).

Alauddin Khalji (AD 1296–1316)

Alauddin Khalji became Sultan after killing Jalaluddin Khalji.

Rise to Power

Won support of nobles and army through distribution of wealth.
Eliminated rebellious nobles and rivals.

Harsh Policies

Gave severe punishments to:
- Rebels
- Their families (wives and children included)

Measures Against Nobility

Banned:
- Feasts and social gatherings
- Marriage alliances without permission
Confiscated wealth of nobles to weaken them

Military Conquests

Conquered Gujarat → acquired Malik Kafur
Captured:
- Ranthambore
- Chittor
- Malwa
Sent Malik Kafur to the Deccan and South India for further expansion

Alauddin Khalji – Expansion and Administration

Military Conquests

Alauddin Khalji defeated:
- Yadava king Ramachandra Deva (Devagiri)
- Kakatiya king Pratap Rudra Deva I
- Hoysala king Vira Ballala III
- Pandya ruler Mahavarman Kulasekhara
His campaigns reached as far as Rameshwaram, where he built a mosque.
Strengthened the North-West frontier under Ghazi Malik.

Administrative Reforms of Alauddin Khalji

First Sultan to maintain a permanent standing army.
Paid soldiers in cash instead of land grants.

Major Ordinances

Confiscation of religious endowments and land grants.
Strengthened the spy system.
Prohibited wine and intoxicants.
Banned social gatherings and intermarriages among nobles without permission.

Military Reforms

Introduced:
- Dagh system → branding of horses
- Chehra system → detailed record of soldiers

Revenue Reforms

Measured cultivable land; Biswa used as standard unit.
State demand fixed at 50% of produce.
Appointed officials called Mustakharaj for revenue collection.

Economic / Market Reforms

Controlled prices of all commodities.
Established three markets in Delhi.
Goods sold in open market called Sarai-i-Adl.
Created a market control department under a minister.

Architecture and Constructions

Built:
- Alai Fort
- Alai Darwaza (gateway of Qutub Minar)
- Hauz Khas
- Jamait Khana Mosque
- Palace of Thousand Pillars (Hazaar Situn)
Founded new capital Siri
Took the title Sikandar-i-Sani

Cultural Contributions

Separated religion from politics.
Believed that kingship is above kinship.
Patronised scholars like:
- Amir Khusro
- Amir Hasan Dehlvi

Successors of Alauddin Khalji

After his death (1316), Malik Kafur seized power.
He placed Shihabuddin (Alauddin’s son) on the throne.
Shihabuddin was later deposed by Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah (1316–1320).
Nasiruddin Khusrau Shah killed Mubarak Shah.
He was then overthrown by Ghazi Malik.

This ended the Khalji Dynasty (30 years rule)

THE TUGHLAQ DYNASTY (AD 1320–1414)

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (AD 1320–1325)

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (Ghazi Malik) founded the Tughlaq dynasty.
Took the title “Ghazi” (slayer of infidels).

Policies and Reforms

Relaxed strict policies of Alauddin Khalji.
Promoted:
- Canal construction
- Famine relief measures
Improved judicial and police administration.
Restored efficient postal system.

Revenue System

Abolished land measurement system.
Introduced Batai system (sharing of crops between state and peasants).

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (continued)

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq sent his son Jauna Khan to re-establish authority in:
- Warangal (Kakatiya kingdom)
- Madurai (Pandya kingdom)
Built the city of Tughlaqabad near Delhi and made it his capital.
The Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya is said to have remarked:

👉 “Delhi is still far away.”
He died in AD 1325 after falling from a pavilion.
Ibn Battuta suggested that his death might have been a conspiracy by his son Jauna Khan (Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq).

Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq (AD 1325–1351)

Jauna Khan became ruler as Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
Known as one of the most extraordinary rulers of medieval India.

Personality

Expert in:
- Arabic and Persian
- Astronomy
- Philosophy
- Mathematics
- Medicine
Very intelligent but impulsive, leading to failure of many policies.

Five Ambitious Projects of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq

1. Taxation in the Doab (1326)

Increased land revenue in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab.
Imposed additional taxes (Abwabs).
Result: Severe hardship and revolts among peasants.

2. Transfer of Capital (1327)

Shifted capital from Delhi to Devagiri.
Renamed Devagiri as Daulatabad.
Caused great hardship due to forced migration.

3. Introduction of Token Currency (1329)

Introduced bronze coins equal in value to silver coins.
Failed due to widespread forgery and misuse.

4. Khurasan Expedition (1329)

Planned conquest of Khurasan and Iraq.
Raised a huge army but project was abandoned, causing financial loss.

5. Qarachil Expedition (1331)

Launched in Kumaon hills (Himalayas).
Intended to counter Chinese influence.
Initially successful, but army suffered due to climate and terrain.

Other Measures

Established Diwan-i-Kohi (agriculture department).
Built:
- Fort of Adilabad
- City of Jahanpanah

Ibn Battuta

Ibn Battuta came to India in 1334.
Appointed as Qazi of Delhi.
Described India in his book Rihla (Safarnama).

Death

Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq died in Thatta (Sind) while campaigning against a rebel named Taghi.

Firoz Shah Tughlaq (AD 1351–1388)

Firoz Shah Tughlaq faced the challenge of maintaining unity of the Sultanate.

Policies

Followed a policy of appeasement towards:
- Nobles
- Army
- Ulema (religious scholars)

Administrative Changes

Made Iqta system hereditary.
Extended heredity to the army.
Soldiers were paid through land revenue assignments (Wajeh) instead of cash → led to corruption.

Agricultural Reforms

Focused on irrigation development:
- Canal from Sutlej to Ghaggar
- Canal from Yamuna to Hissar
Introduced Haq-i-Sharb (water tax).

Other Measures

Encouraged slavery system.
Created department Diwan-i-Bandagan (for slaves).

MEDIEVAL INDIA

The Rajputs

The Pratiharas (Pariharas) were from South Rajasthan.
They emerged as a powerful force in Northern India in the 9th and 10th centuries AD.

Origin

Four Rajput clans claimed descent from a mythical figure that arose from a sacrificial fire pit near Mount Abu (Agnikula origin). These are:
- Chauhans of East Rajasthan
- Solankis (Chalukyas) of Kathiawar
- Parmars (Pawars) of Malwa
- Pratiharas
However, the most accepted theory is that Rajputs were of foreign origin who settled in West India.

Main Rajput Clans

Suryavansha (Sun family)
Chandravansha (Moon family)

Important Rajput Kingdoms

Kingdom	Capital	Founder
Chauhan/Chahaman of Delhi-Ajmer	Delhi-Ajmer	Vasudeva
Pawar of Malwa	Ujjain, Dhar	Siyaka II / Bhoja lineage
Pratihara of Kannauj	Avanti, Kannauj	Nagabhatta I
Rashtrakuta of Malkhand	Manyakheta	Dantidurga
Solanki of Kathiawar	Anhilwara	Mularaja I
Kalchuri of Chedi	Tripuri	Kokkala I
Chandela of Jejakabhukti	Khajuraho	Nannuk
Gahadavala of Kannauj	Kannauj	Chandradeva
Tomars of Delhi-Haryana	Dhillika	—
Guhilota (Sisodiya) of Mewar	Chittor	Bappa Rawal

Important Rajput Rulers

Jaichand (1169–1194 AD)

Supported Muhammad Ghori against Prithviraj Chauhan in the Second Battle of Tarain (1192).
Later defeated and killed by Ghori in the Battle of Chandawar (1194).

Prithviraj Chauhan (1178–1192 AD)

Fought two battles with Muhammad Ghori:
- First Battle of Tarain (1191) – Prithviraj won
- Second Battle of Tarain (1192) – Prithviraj defeated and killed

Bhoja (1010–1055 AD)

Great conqueror and patron of literature
Known as Kaviraj

Architectural Works

Kandariya Mahadeva Temple – built by Chandellas
Dilwara Temples – Solanki style
Angkor Wat – built by Suryavarman II, dedicated to Vishnu
Sun Temple
Lingaraja Temple

Literary Works

Kathasaritsagara – by Somadeva
Vikramankadeva Charita – by Bilhana
Rajatarangini – history of Kashmir
Gita Govinda – by Jayadeva
Chachnama

THE LODHI DYNASTY (AD 1451–1526)

Considered the first Afghan dynasty of India.
Before them, they were ruling over Sirhind while the Sayyid dynasty ruled Delhi.

Bahlol Lodhi (AD 1451–1489)

Founder of the Lodhi dynasty in India.
Revived the Delhi Sultanate to a considerable extent.
Annexed the entire Sharqi kingdom.
Issued coins known as Bahlol coins.
Lived simply—did not sit on the throne, but on carpets along with nobles (Amirs).

Sikandar Lodhi (AD 1489–1517)

The greatest of the Lodhi rulers; real name was Nizam Khan.
Son of Bahlol Lodhi.
Conquered Bihar and Bengal.
Founded the city of Agra in AD 1504 and made it his capital.

Policies and Achievements

A religiously orthodox ruler; destroyed some temples.
Established an efficient spy system.
Improved judicial administration.
Introduced auditing of accounts.
Encouraged agriculture and land measurement using Gaj-i-Sikandari.
A poet who wrote under the pen-name Gulrukhi.
Repaired the Qutub Minar.

Ibrahim Lodhi (AD 1517–1526)

Tried to strengthen central authority, which angered nobles.
Faced revolts from Afghan nobles.

Important Events

Daulat Khan Lodhi invited Babur to invade India.
Defeated by Rana Sanga (earlier conflicts).
Finally defeated and killed by Babur in the

First Battle of Panipat, marking the end of the Delhi Sultanate and beginning of the Mughal Empire.

Causes of the Decline of the Delhi Sultanate

Despotic and military form of government
Frequent wars of succession
Financial instability
Vast empire with weak administrative control
Failed experiments of Muhammad bin Tughlaq
Timur’s invasion of India
Weak nobility and rise of slaves during Firoz Shah Tughlaq

THE SULTANATE ADMINISTRATION

Delhi Sultans considered themselves Lieutenants of the Caliph, though the Caliph had only moral authority.

Powers of the Sultan

Supreme political, legal, and military authority
Commander-in-chief of the army

Central Administration

Wazir (Diwan-i-Wizarat)

Head of finance department
Maintained income and expenditure records

Diwan-i-Arz

Military department
Responsible for recruitment, payment, and inspection of army

Diwan-i-Risalat

Managed religious matters
Headed by Chief Sadr or Chief Qazi
Qazi administered justice based on Sharia law

Diwan-i-Insha

Managed royal correspondence
Headed by Dabir-i-Mamalik

Other Features

Empire divided into Iqtas for administration and revenue collection
Iqtadars could be transferred
Intelligence system maintained through spies called Barids

DELHI SULTANATE ADMINISTRATION (Continued)

Wakil-i-Dar was responsible for maintaining proper decorum in the royal court.

Administrative Divisions

Provinces were divided into Shiqs, headed by Shiqdars.
Next unit was Pargana (group of villages), headed by:
- Chaudhary
- Amil (revenue officer)
Khuts were the landowners.

CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS

Art and Architecture

Arches and domes were special features of Islamic architecture.
Required stronger cement → better quality mortar became common in North India.

Decorative Features

Use of:
- Geometrical and floral designs
- Verses from the Quran
Also included Hindu motifs like:
- Bell
- Lotus
- Swastika

Examples

Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra
Tomb of Ghiyasuddin Balban at Mehrauli

Important Constructions

Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque – built by Qutb-ud-din Aibak
Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra – Aibak
Alai Darwaza – Alauddin Khalji
Qutub Minar – expanded by Khalji rulers
Jamat Khana Masjid at dargah of Nizamuddin Auliya – Alauddin Khalji
Siri city, Hauz Khas tank, Hazaar Situn – Alauddin Khalji
Tughlaqabad Fort – Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
Jahanpanah & Adilabad forts – Muhammad bin Tughlaq
Cities of Jaunpur, Hisar, Firozabad – Firoz Shah Tughlaq

LITERARY SOURCES

Book	Author
Khazain-ul-Futuh	Amir Khusro
Tughlaqnama	Amir Khusro
Tarikh-i-Alai	Amir Khusro
Tabaqat-i-Nasiri	Minhaj-us-Siraj
Tarikh-i-Firozshahi	Ziauddin Barani
Gita Govinda	Jayadeva
Mitakshara	Vijnaneshwara
Dayabhaga	Jimutavahana
Ashiqa / Deval Rani & Khizr Khan	Amir Khusro
Amuktamalyada	Krishnadevaraya
Futuhat-i-Firozshahi	Firoz Shah Tughlaq
Prasanna Raghava	—
Khamsa	Amir Khusro
Miftah-ul-Futuh	Amir Khusro

Music

New musical instruments introduced:
- Rabab
- Sarangi
Amir Khusro:
- Introduced Persian-Arabic ragas
- Credited with inventing the Sitar
- Developed Khayal style of singing

Painting

Arabs introduced paper in the 15th century → boosted painting development.

Literature

Sanskrit works like:
- Rajatarangini
- Mahabharata
  
  were translated into Persian
Other works:
- Rajavinoda – by Udayaraja
- Tuti Nama – translated by Zia Nakshabi
- Prabandha Chintamani – by Merutunga

Amir Khusro (AD 1253–1325)

Famous Persian poet and musician
Served in courts of several Delhi Sultans

Major Contributions

Known as “Tuti-i-Hind” (Parrot of India)
Credited with invention of Sitar
Developed Khayal singing style

Important Works

Tarikh-i-Alai – account of Alauddin Khalji’s conquests
Ashiqa – love story of Deval Rani & Khizr Khan
Nuh Sipihr – account of Sultan Mubarak Shah
Tughlaqnama – about Tughlaq rule

PROVINCIAL KINGDOMS

Mewar

Capital: Chittorgarh
Captured by Alauddin Khalji in AD 1303, but Rajput rule was later restored by Rana Hamir (AD 1326–1364).

Important Rulers

Rana Kumbha (AD 1433–1468)
- Greatest ruler of Mewar
- Built Vijay Stambh to commemorate victory over Mahmud Khalji
- His court scholar Mandan wrote architectural texts (Prasad Mandan, Rupa Mandan)
Rana Sanga (1509–1528)
- Defeated Mahmud II of Malwa and Ibrahim Lodhi
- Defeated by Babur in the
  
  Battle of Khanwa

Gujarat

Became independent in AD 1397 under Zafar Khan (Muzaffar Shah).

Important Rulers

Ahmed Shah I
- Founded Ahmedabad
- Built Jama Masjid and Tin Darwaza
Mahmud Begarha
- Portuguese established a factory at Diu during his reign
- Patronised Sanskrit scholar Udayaraja
Annexed by Akbar in AD 1573

Malwa

Annexed by Alauddin Khalji in AD 1305
Became independent under Dilawar Khan Ghuri

Important Rulers

Hoshang Shah
- Built Jama Masjid, Hindola Mahal, and Jahaz Mahal at Mandu
Mahmud Khalji
- Defeated by Rana Kumbha
Became part of Gujarat (AD 1531)
Annexed by Mughals (AD 1562)

Kashmir

First Muslim ruler: Shams-ud-Din Shah Mir (AD 1339)

Greatest Ruler

Zain-ul-Abidin (AD 1420–1470)
- Known as “Badshah” and “Akbar of Kashmir”
- Followed policy of tolerance
- Introduced shawl-making industry
- Built Zaina Lanka and artificial island in Wular Lake
Later ruled by Chak dynasty
Annexed by Akbar in AD 1586

Bengal

Became independent during reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq

Important Developments

Founded by Ilyas Shah (AD 1342)
Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah
- Maintained relations with China
- Promoted trade
Poet Maladhar Basu (author of Sri Krishna Vijaya) patronised
Bhakti saints:
- Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
- Shankaradeva
Conquered by Sher Shah Suri (AD 1538)

VIJAYANAGARA KINGDOM (AD 1336–1580)

Sangama Dynasty (AD 1336–1485)

Founded in AD 1336 as a response to Tughlaq rule in South India

Founders

Harihara I
Bukka Raya I

Background

Originally feudatories of the Kakatiyas
Captured by Muhammad bin Tughlaq
Converted to Islam and sent south
Later reconverted to Hinduism under Bhakti saint Vidyaranya
Established Vijayanagara Empire in AD 1336

Vijayanagara Kingdom (continued)

Harihara I (AD 1336–1356)

Conflict with the Bahmani kingdom for supremacy over three areas:
- Raichur Doab (between Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers)
- Krishna-Godavari Delta
- Marathwada

Bukka I (AD 1356–1379)

Renamed the city of Vidyanagar as Vijayanagara.
Royal ambassadors from Malabar and Ceylon adorned his court.
Restored peace between the warring Vaishnavas and Jains.

Deva Raya I (AD 1406–1422)

Constructed a dam across the Tungabhadra to bring canal water into the city.
Italian traveller Nicolo Conti visited during his reign.
Srinatha was his court poet, who wrote Haravilasam.
There was a Pearl Hall in his palace, where he honoured eminent persons.

Deva Raya II (AD 1425–1446)

Greatest ruler of the Sangama dynasty.
Commanders believed him to be an incarnation of Indra.
Wrote Mahanataka Sudhanidhi.
Took the title “Gajabetekara” (elephant hunter).
Persian ambassador Abdul Razzaq (envoy of Shahrukh) visited his court.
Scholar in Kannada and Sanskrit.

Saluva Dynasty (AD 1486–1505)

Founded by Saluva Narasimha (AD 1486–1491), native of Kalyani region.

Tirumala (1491) and Immadi Narasimha (1491–1505)

Ruled under regency of Narsa Nayak.
Vasco da Gama’s arrival in India occurred during Immadi Narasimha’s reign.

Tuluva Dynasty (AD 1505–1570)

Vira Narasimha (AD 1505–1509)

Killed Immadi Narasimha and established Tuluva dynasty.
Son of Narsa Nayak.

Krishnadevaraya (AD 1509–1529)

Greatest ruler of the dynasty.
Portuguese travellers like Domingo Paes and Duarte Barbosa praised him.
Ambassador of Afonso de Albuquerque also visited his court.
His reign is known as the Golden Age of Telugu Literature.
A great warrior, administrator, and patron of arts.
Defeated the Gajapati ruler of Orissa.
Took the title “Yavanaraja Sthapanacharya”.
His political ideas are in the Telugu work Amuktamalyada.
Also wrote Sanskrit drama Jambavati Kalyanam.
Titles:
- Abhinava Bhoja
- Andhra Pitamaha
- Andhra Bhoja
His guru was Sri Vyasatirtha.
His court had Ashta Diggajas (eight great Telugu poets).
Contemporary of Babur.

Achyuta Raya (AD 1529–1542)

Successor of Krishnadevaraya.
Portuguese traveller Fernao Nuniz visited during his reign.

Sadasiva Raya (AD 1543–1576)

Last ruler of the dynasty.

Battle of Talikota (AD 1565)

Fought between:
- Vijayanagara (Sadasiva Raya)
- Alliance of Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda, and Bidar
Result: Defeat of Vijayanagara.
Portuguese traveller Caesar Frederick visited during this period (AD 1567–68).

The Aravidu Dynasty (AD 1570–1650)

The dynasty was founded by Tirumala, brother of Rama Raya.
He shifted the capital to Penukonda.
The empire was divided into three linguistic sections.

Vijayanagara Architecture

Important temples include:
- Vithala Temple
- Hazara Rama Temple
- Varadaraja Perumal Temple
- Ekambareswarar Temple
- Chidambaram Nataraja Temple
Stories of the Ramayana and Mahabharata were inscribed on temple walls (e.g., Vithala and Hazara Rama temples).
Architecture shows a blend of Chalukyan, Hoysala, Pandyan, and Chola styles.

Vijayanagara Society

Only medieval Indian empire known to employ women in administration and military.
Women even participated in battles.

Vijayanagara Trade

Accounts of Fernao Nuniz and Domingo Paes show dependence on foreign trade.
Trade supported:
- Cavalry (horses)
- Firearms

Vijayanagara Coins

Gold coins called Varahas or Pagodas were issued.
The symbol of Varaha (boar)—an incarnation of Vishnu—was common.
Indicates rulers were Vaishnavites.

The Nayankara System

Military chiefs were given land called Amaram.
These chiefs (Nayaks):
- Had administrative and revenue rights
- Maintained army (elephants, horses, soldiers)
- Paid tribute to the central government
Over time, Nayaks became powerful, contributing to the decline of Vijayanagara Empire.

The Ayagar System

A 12-member village administrative body.
Members (Ayagars):
- Were village officials
- Received tax-free land for services
- Held hereditary positions
- Controlled land transactions (no sale/purchase without permission)

Bahmani Kingdom

Founded by Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah (Hasan Gangu / Ismail Mukh) in AD 1347.
Capital: Gulbarga

Early Rulers

Bahman Shah (AD 1347–1358)
- First ruler
- Kingdom divided into 4 provinces: Gulbarga, Daulatabad, Berar, Bidar
Mahmud Shah I (AD 1358–1375)
- Created council of 8 ministers
- Decentralised administration
- Fought with Vijayanagara

Firoz Shah (AD 1397–1422)

One of the greatest Bahmani rulers.
Wanted Deccan to become a cultural centre.
Appointed Hindus in administration.
Built an observatory at Daulatabad.
Founded Firozabad on river Bhima.
Defeated Deva Raya I.

Ahmed Shah I (AD 1422–1436)

Shifted capital from Gulbarga to Bidar.
Known as Wali (saint) due to association with Gesudaraz.
Introduced Bidri ware (metal inlay art using zinc with silver/gold).

Bahmani Kingdom (continued)

Ala-ud-Din Ahmad Shah II (AD 1436–1458) was succeeded by Humayun.

Humayun (AD 1458–1461)

Known for extreme cruelty, hence called “Zalim”.
He was succeeded by:
- Nizam Shah (1461–1463)
- Muhammad Shah III (AD 1463–1482)
Mahmud Gawan served as Prime Minister under Muhammad Shah III.
Afanasy Nikitin visited Bidar during this period.
After the execution of Mahmud Gawan by discontented nobles, the Bahmani kingdom began to decline.
The last ruler was Kalim Ullah Shah (AD 1524–1527).

Break-up of Bahmani Kingdom

After its decline, five independent Muslim states emerged:

Nizam Shahi of Ahmednagar

Founded by Ahmad Nizam Shah I.
Later annexed by Shah Jahan.

Adil Shahi of Bijapur (1490–1686)

Founded by Yusuf Adil Shah.
Annexed by Aurangzeb.
Greatest ruler: Ibrahim Adil Shah II
- Promoted Dakhini language instead of Persian.
Muhammad Adil Shah built the famous
- Gol Gumbaz

Imad Shahi of Berar (1490–1574)

Founded by Fathullah Imad-ul-Mulk.
Capital: Daulatabad.
Later annexed by the Nizam Shahi rulers of Ahmednagar.

Qutb Shahi of Golconda (1518–1687)

Founded by Sultan Quli Qutb Shah.
Built the famous Golconda Fort.
Greatest ruler: Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah
- Founded the city of Hyderabad
- Built Charminar
Important port: Masulipatnam
Annexed by Aurangzeb in 1687.

Barid Shahi of Bidar (1528–1619)

Founded by Ali Barid Shah I.
Later annexed by Bijapur (Adil Shahi rulers).

Religious Movements

The Sufi Movement

Sufis were Islamic mystics who emphasized love and devotion to God.
They believed in a close relationship between God and the human soul.
The term Sufi comes from “soof” (wool), symbolizing a simple and ascetic life.
They promoted:
- Purity
- Renunciation
- Spiritual devotion
Based on the doctrine of
- Wahdat al-Wujud (Unity of Being),
  
  propounded by Ibn Arabi.
One of the earliest Sufis: Rabia al-Basri.

Sufi Organisation

Sufis were organised into 12 orders (Silsilas).
Each silsila was led by a Pir (spiritual teacher).
Followers were called Murids (disciples).
They lived in Khanqahs (hospices).
Successor of a Pir was called Wali.

Types of Sufi Orders

Ba-shara → Followed Islamic law (Shariat)
Be-shara → Did not strictly follow Shariat

Sufi Orders

1. Chishti Order (Delhi, Doab region)

Founder: Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti (in India)

Popular Saints:

Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki
Nizamuddin Auliya
Nasiruddin Chiragh Dehlavi
Nizamuddin Auliya was also called “Mahbub-i-Ilahi” (Beloved of God)

Features:

Used Sama (musical recitation) to attain closeness to God

2. Suhrawardi Order (Punjab & Sind)

Founder: Shihabuddin Suhrawardi

Popular Saint:

Bahauddin Zakariya

Features:

Maintained close contact with the state
Had large land holdings (Jagirs)

Firdausi Order

Founder: Badruddin Samarqandi

Popular Saint:

Shamsuddin Yahya Maneri

Features:

Believed in pantheistic monotheism
Disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya

Qadiri Order

Founder: Abdul Qadir Jilani

Popular Saint:

Shah Niamatullah

Naqshbandi Order

Founder: Bahauddin Naqshband

Popular Saints:

Khwaja Baqi Billah
Ahmad Sirhindi
Dara Shikoh, son of Shah Jahan, was associated with this order

Sufi Terminology

Term	Meaning
Shaikh / Murshid / Pir	Spiritual teacher
Murid	Disciple
Khanqah	Hospice
Sama	Musical recital
Raqs	Dance
Fana	Self-annihilation
Khalifa	Successor
Tasawwuf	Sufism

Bhakti Movement

Originated in South India (7th–12th century)
Led by saint-poets called Alvars (Vaishnavites)
Their devotional songs were called Prabandhas
Declined by 10th century, later revived by philosophers like Ramanuja
His disciple Ramananda spread Bhakti to North India

Key Features:

Rejected caste system
Encouraged participation of women
Used local languages
Focused on devotion (Bhakti)

Concepts:

God can be:
- Saguna (with form)
- Nirguna (formless)

Important Bhakti Saints

Ramanuja (AD 1017–1137)

Propounded Vishishtadvaita philosophy
Believed Moksha can be achieved through:
- Karma
- Gyan
- Bhakti

Jnaneshwar (AD 1275–1296)

Pioneer of Bhakti movement in Maharashtra

Namdev (1270–1350)

Follower of Nirguna Bhakti
His hymns are included in the Guru Granth Sahib

Eknath (AD 1533–1599)

Born in Paithan (Aurangabad)
Published Marathi version of Gita (Eknathi Bhagavata)
Opposed caste system
Accepted disciples from lower castes

📚 Bhakti Movement (Medieval India)

🔹 Origin & Nature

Began in South India with Alvars (Vaishnavites) and Nayanars (Shaivites).
Spread to North India through philosophers like Ramanuja and Ramananda.
Focused on:
- Devotion (Bhakti) to one God
- Equality (rejection of caste system)
- Simplicity in worship
- Use of local languages

🔹 Types of Bhakti

Saguna Bhakti → God with form (e.g., Rama, Krishna)
Nirguna Bhakti → Formless God

👥 Important Bhakti Saints

🔸 South & Early Philosophers

🧠 Ramanuja (1017–1137)

Propounded Vishishtadvaita (Qualified Non-dualism)
Salvation through Bhakti + Karma + Gyan

🧠 Madhvacharya (not in your text but important)

Propounded Dvaita (Dualism)

🔸 Maharashtra Saints

🎤 Namdev (1270–1350)

Nirguna Bhakti
Hymns included in Guru Granth Sahib

📖 Eknath (1533–1599)

Wrote Marathi version of Bhagavad Gita
Opposed caste system

🎶 Tukaram (1598–1650)

Greatest Marathi Bhakti poet
Devotee of Vithoba (Vishnu)

🧘 Samarth Ramdas (1608–1681)

Guru of Shivaji
Wrote Dasbodh

🔸 North Indian Saints

🕉️ Ramananda

Founder of Bhakti in North India
Accepted disciples from all castes

🔥 Kabir (1440–1510)

Nirguna Bhakti
Criticized both Hindu and Muslim rituals
Famous for Dohas

🎶 Surdas (1478–1583)

Devotee of Krishna
Wrote Sursagar

🌸 Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1533)

Promoted Krishna Bhakti
Philosophy: Achintya Bheda-Abheda

🕊️ Dadu Dayal

Nirguna tradition
Emphasized unity of God and humanity

🔸 Sikhism Founder

🪔 Guru Nanak (1469–1539)

Born at Talwandi (Nankana Sahib)
Believed in:
- One God (Akal Purush)
- Equality
- Rejection of rituals
Started:
- Langar (community kitchen)
Teachings compiled in Guru Granth Sahib

🔸 Other Important Saint

🌼 Vallabhacharya (1479–1531)

Founder of Pushti Marg
Worship of Krishna
Believed Atma = Paramatma

🧠 Key Exam Points (Quick Revision)

Bhakti Movement = Devotion + Equality + Vernacular language
Two types → Saguna & Nirguna
Major centers:
- South → Alvars, Ramanuja
- North → Ramananda, Kabir, Nanak
Sikhism emerged from Bhakti ideas
Opposed:
- Caste system
- Rituals
- Religious orthodoxy

📿 Additional Bhakti Saints (Important for Exams)

🔸 Vaishnava & Philosophical Saints

🌸 Nimbarkacharya

Contemporary of Ramanuja
Worshipped Radha-Krishna
Propounded Dvaitadvaita (Dualistic Non-dualism)

🧠 Madhvacharya (1238–1317)

Founder of Dvaita philosophy
Believed:
- God and soul are completely separate
Salvation through:
- Knowledge + Devotion
Successor: Jayatirtha

🔸 Regional Bhakti Saints

✍️ Vidyapati

Famous Maithili poet
Wrote Padavali (love songs of Radha-Krishna)

🎶 Narsinh Mehta

Saint from Gujarat
Composed bhajan:
- “Vaishnava Jan To” (favored by Mahatma Gandhi)

🎵 Purandara Dasa (1484–1564)

Founder of Carnatic Music
Vaishnava saint from Karnataka

🕉️ Shankaradeva (1449–1568)

Vaishnava saint of Assam
Spread Bhakti in Northeast India

🎼 Tyagaraja (1767–1847)

Greatest composer of Carnatic music
Devotee of Lord Rama

🔸 Famous Devotional Saints

🌺 Mirabai (1498–1546)

Rajput princess of Mewar
Devotee of Krishna
Married to Bhojraj (son of Rana Sanga)

📖 Tulsidas (1532–1623)

Born in Varanasi
Devotee of Lord Rama
Wrote:
- Ramcharitmanas
- Vinay Patrika, Gitavali, Kavitavali

🏹 THE MUGHAL EMPIRE (Beginning)

👑 Babur (1526–1530)

🔹 Background

Descendant of:
- Timur (father’s side)
- Genghis Khan (mother’s side)
Originally ruler of Ferghana

🔹 Invitation to India

Invited by:

Daulat Khan Lodhi
Alam Khan Lodhi
Rana Sanga

⚔️ Important Battles

First Battle of Panipat (1526)
- Defeated Ibrahim Lodhi
- 👉 Established Mughal rule in India
Battle of Khanwa (1527)
- Defeated Rana Sanga
- Took title “Ghazi”
Battle of Chanderi (1528)
- Defeated Medini Rai
Battle of Ghaghra (1529)
- Defeated Muhammad Lodhi
- First battle fought on land + water

🔹 Achievements

First ruler to use gunpowder & artillery effectively
Took title Badshah
Brought Kabul & Kandahar into Indian empire

📚 Book

Wrote Baburnama (Tuzuk-i-Babari)

⚰️ Death

Died in 1530
Buried initially in Agra, later moved to Kabul

👑 Humayun (1530–1540, 1555–56)

🔹 Key Points

Son of Babur
Faced problems due to:
- Division of empire among brothers:
  - Kamran
  - Hindal
  - Askari
Weak ruler initially → lost empire (later regained)

🧠 Quick Exam Revision

Nimbarka → Radha-Krishna, Dvaitadvaita
Madhva → Dvaita philosophy
Tulsidas → Ramcharitmanas
Mirabai → Krishna devotion
Babur → Founder of Mughal Empire (1526)
Panipat (1526) → Start of Mughal rule

👑 Humayun (1530–1540, 1555–1556)

⚔️ Early Struggles

First campaign: Kaliniar (Kalinjar)
Faced strong challenge from Sher Shah Suri

🔹 Chunar & Bengal Campaign

First siege of Chunar (1533) → Sher Shah offered nominal submission
Second siege (1538) → Resistance by Sher Shah’s son
Humayun captured Gaur (Bengal)
- Renamed it Jannatabad

⚔️ Major Defeats

🟥 Battle of Chausa (1539)

Defeated by Sher Shah Suri
Escaped with difficulty

🟥 Battle of Kannauj / Bilgram (1540)

Again defeated → lost empire
Forced into exile

🏜️ Exile (1540–1555)

Wandered in Sindh
Took refuge in Persia (Iran)
Gained support from Persian ruler

🔁 Return to Power (1555)

Helped by Bairam Khan
Won:
- Battle of Machhiwara
- Battle of Sirhind
Recaptured Delhi & Lahore

⚰️ Death (1556)

Died after falling from stairs of Sher Mandal (Delhi)
Capitals:
- Delhi
- Dinpanah (second capital)

👑 Akbar (1556–1605)

👶 Early Life

Born in 1542 at Amarkot
Mother: Hamida Banu Begum
Crowned at Kalanaur (1556) at age 14

⚔️ Second Battle of Panipat (1556)

Fought against Hemu (general of Muhammad Adil Shah Sur)
Led by Bairam Khan
Result:
- Victory for Akbar
- Re-established Mughal rule

🛡️ Regency Period (1556–1560)

Ruled under Bairam Khan
Conquests:
- Gwalior
- Jaunpur
- Ajmer
- Ranthambore
Later:
- Akbar removed Bairam Khan (sent to Mecca)
- Bairam Khan was killed en route

👑 Independent Rule

Ended “Petticoat Government” (influence of Maham Anaga)
Established strong central authority

⚔️ Important Conquests

🟡 Malwa (1561)

Defeated Baz Bahadur
Later made him a Mansabdar

🟡 Gondwana

Fought against Rani Durgavati

🟡 Rajasthan

Captured:
- Chittor (defended by Jaimal)
- Ranthambore

🟡 Gujarat (1572)

Victory commemorated by:
- Building Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri

🟡 Deccan

Siege of Ahmednagar (defended by Chand Bibi)

🟡 Final Campaign

Asirgarh (1601) → Annexation of Khandesh

🤝 Rajput Policy (VERY IMPORTANT)

Policy of conciliation (friendship)
Marriages:
- Married daughter of Raja Bharmal
- Alliances with:
  - Bikaner
  - Jaisalmer
Prince Jahangir married Rajput princess

👉 Result:

Strong alliance with Rajputs
Stability of empire

🧠 Quick Revision Points

Humayun:
- Defeated at Chausa (1539) & Kannauj (1540)
- Regained throne in 1555
- Died in 1556 (fall from stairs)
Akbar:
- Won 2nd Battle of Panipat (1556)
- Ended regency → strong ruler
- Followed Rajput alliance policy
- Built Buland Darwaza

Akbar – Expansion & Empire

🌍 Territorial Expansion

Raja Man Singh conquered:
- Bihar
- Bengal
- Orissa
Major conquests:
- Kashmir (1586)
- Sindh (1593)
- Kandahar

👉 By 1605 (death):

Empire extended from:
- Kashmir → Godavari (Deccan)
- Included Sindh & Kandahar

📍 Burial:

Sikandra (Agra)

💎 Navratnas (Nine Gems of Akbar’s Court)

📚 Scholars & Intellectuals

✍️ Abul Fazl

Wazir (Prime Minister)
Wrote:
- Akbarnama
- Ain-i-Akbari

📖 Faizi

Brother of Abul Fazl
Persian poet
Tutor of Akbar’s son
Work: Lilavati (Math translation)

🎶 Artist

🎵 Tansen

Greatest musician of the time
Originally served Raja Ramchandra of Mewar
Later joined Akbar’s court
Famous for ragas:
- Megh Malhar (rain)
- Deepak (fire)

🧠 Administrators & Advisors

😂 Birbal

Real name: Mahesh Das
Known for wit & intelligence
Close advisor of Akbar

💰 Raja Todar Mal

Introduced revenue system (Todarmal Bandobast)
Standardized:
- Measurement
- Revenue collection
  
  👉 Model later used by Mughals & British

⚔️ Raja Man Singh

Trusted general
Grandson of Raja Bharmal
Fought in:
- Battle of Haldighati

✍️ Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khana

Son of Bairam Khan
Known for Hindi dohas

🕊️ Faqir Aziao Din

Chief religious advisor
Sufi mystic

🧾 Mullah Do Piaza

One of Akbar’s advisors (semi-legendary figure)

🏛️ Important Aspects of Akbar’s Rule

⚖️ Administrative Reforms

Reorganized central administration
Divided power among departments

🕌 Religious Policy (VERY IMPORTANT)

🌍 Sulh-i-Kul (Peace for All)

Promoted religious tolerance
Equal respect for all religions

❌ Abolished:

Jaziya tax
Pilgrimage tax
Forced religious conversions

🏠 Ibadat Khana (Fatehpur Sikri)

House of religious debates
Invited scholars from different religions:
- Hindus
- Muslims
- Jains
- Christians
- Parsis

📜 Mahzar (1579)

Declaration making Akbar:
- Final interpreter of Islamic law
- Known as Mujtahid / Imam-i-Adil

🐄 Social Measures

Banned cow slaughter (in many cases)
Promoted harmony among communities

🧠 Quick Revision Points

Akbar’s empire → Kashmir to Deccan
Navratnas = 9 gems (Abul Fazl, Birbal, Tansen, etc.)
Todarmal → Revenue system
Sulh-i-Kul → Religious tolerance
Ibadat Khana → Religious debates
Mahzar (1579) → Akbar supreme authority

📘 Quick Revision Notes (Simplified)

🏹 1. Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)

🔹 Slave Dynasty (1206–1290)

Qutubuddin Aibak – Founder, built Qutub Minar (started)
Iltutmish – Real consolidator, introduced Iqta system, silver Tanka
Razia Sultan – Only female ruler
Balban – Strong king, policy of “Blood & Iron”, Zil-i-Ilahi

🔹 Khalji Dynasty (1290–1320)

Jalaluddin Khalji – Mild ruler
Alauddin Khalji – Most powerful
- Market control system 💰
- First standing army
- South India campaigns (Malik Kafur)
- Built Siri city, Alai Darwaza

🔹 Tughlaq Dynasty (1320–1414)

Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq
- Capital shift: Delhi → Daulatabad
- Token currency ❌ (failed)
Firoz Shah Tughlaq
- Built canals, towns
- Made Iqta hereditary
- Imposed Jaziya on Brahmins

🔹 Later Dynasties

Sayyid Dynasty (1414–1451) – Weak rulers
Lodhi Dynasty (1451–1526)
- Ibrahim Lodhi defeated by Babur → End of Sultanate

⚔️ 2. Important Battles

1st Battle of Tarain (1191) – Prithviraj Chauhan defeated Muhammad Ghori
2nd Battle of Tarain (1192) – Ghori defeated Prithviraj → Muslim rule begins
1st Battle of Panipat (1526) – Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodhi

🕌 3. Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1565)

Founded by Harihara & Bukka
Greatest ruler → Krishnadevaraya
Features:
- Strong army 💪
- Trade & gold coins (Varaha)
- Nayankara system (military land grants)
End: Battle of Talikota (1565)

🏰 4. Bahmani Kingdom

Founder: Hasan Gangu
Capital: Gulbarga → Bidar
Broke into 5 states:
- Bijapur
- Golconda
- Ahmednagar
- Berar
- Bidar

🕊️ 5. Bhakti Movement

Key Features:

Against caste system ❌
Belief in one God ☝️
Use of local language

Important Saints:

Kabir – Nirguna Bhakti
Guru Nanak – Equality, Langar
Mirabai – Devotion to Krishna
Tulsidas – Ramcharitmanas

🧘 6. Sufi Movement

Focus on love & devotion to God ❤️
Important saints:
- Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti
- Nizamuddin Auliya
Concepts:
- Pir (teacher)
- Murid (disciple)
- Khanqah (center)

👑 7. Mughal Empire (1526 onwards)

🔹 Babur

Founder, wrote Baburnama
Introduced gunpowder warfare

🔹 Humayun

Lost to Sher Shah Suri
Later regained throne

🔹 Akbar (Greatest)

Policy of Sulh-i-Kul (peace for all)
Introduced Mansabdari system
Started Din-i-Ilahi
Built Fatehpur Sikri

Navratnas:

Abul Fazl
Tansen
Birbal
Raja Todar Mal

🔹 Jahangir

Real name: Salim
Influenced by Nur Jahan
Lost Kandahar to Persia

⚠️ Most Important Exam Points

1192 → Turning point (2nd Tarain)
1526 → Start of Mughal Empire
Alauddin Khalji → Market reforms
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq → Failed experiments
Akbar → Religious tolerance + administration

👑 Mughal Empire (Jahangir → Aurangzeb)

🟤 1. Jahangir (1605–1627)

⭐ Key Features

Real name: Salim
Known for justice ⚖️
- Introduced “Zanjir-i-Adl” (Chain of Justice) in Agra
Wrote autobiography: Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri

👸 Role of Nur Jahan

Real name: Mehrunnisa
Most powerful woman in Mughal court
Coins issued in her name 💰
Controlled administration

⚔️ Important Events

Faced strong resistance from Malik Ambar (Ahmednagar)
Lost Kandahar to Persia (1622) ❌

🌍 Foreign Visitors

William Hawkins
Thomas Roe

🟡 2. Shah Jahan (1628–1658)

⭐ Key Features

Real name: Khurram
Married Mumtaz Mahal
Period called Golden Age of Mughal Empire ✨

🏗️ Achievements

Built Taj Mahal
Strengthened Mughal architecture 🕌

⚔️ Military & Politics

Annexed Ahmednagar
Bijapur & Golconda accepted Mughal authority
Failed to recover Kandahar from Persia

🌍 Foreign Travellers

Francois Bernier
Jean-Baptiste Tavernier
Niccolo Manucci

⚠️ Later Life

Imprisoned by his son Aurangzeb in Agra Fort
Died in captivity (1658)

⚔️ 3. War of Succession (1657–1659)

After Shah Jahan fell ill, his four sons fought:

👑 Princes:

Dara Shikoh (eldest)
Shuja
Aurangzeb
Murad

🔥 Important Battles:

Battle of Bahadurgarh (1658) – Shuja defeated
Battle of Dharmat (1658) – Dara defeated
Battle of Samugarh (1658) – निर्णायक युद्ध
- Aurangzeb defeated Dara
- Shah Jahan imprisoned
Battle of Khajwa (1658) – Shuja defeated
Battle of Deorai (1659) – Dara defeated & executed

👉 Result: Aurangzeb became emperor

⚫ 4. Aurangzeb (1658–1707)

⭐ Key Features

Third son of Shah Jahan
Ruled for longest period among Mughals
Expanded empire to maximum size 🗺️

⚔️ Policies

Strict Islamic ruler
Reimposed Jaziya tax
Followed orthodox policies

📍 Deccan Policy

Focused heavily on Deccan campaigns
Long wars weakened Mughal empire 💥

🧠 Quick Memory Tricks

Jahangir → Justice (Chain)
Shah Jahan → Buildings (Taj Mahal)
Aurangzeb → Expansion + Strict rule

⚠️ Exam Important Points

Chain of Justice → Jahangir
Golden Age → Shah Jahan
War of Succession → Key turning point
Aurangzeb → Largest empire but beginning of decline

⚫ Aurangzeb (1658–1707)

⭐ Key Features

Took title “Alamgir” (World Conqueror)
Called Zinda Pir (Living Saint)
Longest ruling Mughal emperor
Empire reached maximum territorial extent 🗺️

👉 Extent:

North: Kashmir
South: Jinji
West: Hindu Kush
East: Chittagong

⚔️ Deccan & Maratha Policy

🏹 Conflict with Shivaji

Shivaji was a powerful Maratha leader
Treaty of Purandar (1665) with Jai Singh
Shivaji visited Mughal court → imprisoned → escaped 😮
In 1674, Shivaji crowned himself king

After Shivaji:

Son Sambhaji captured & executed (1689)
Later leaders:
- Rajaram
- Tarabai
  
  👉 Continued resistance against Mughals

🔥 Major Revolts

Sikh Revolt

Execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur (1675)
Rise of Guru Gobind Singh
Formation of Khalsa (1699) ⚔️

Jat Revolt

Leaders:
- Gokula
- Rajaram
- Churaman

Afghan Revolts

Yusufzai tribes
Led by Ajmal Khan

Rajput Revolt

Conflict in Marwar
Led by Durgadas Rathore
Against Mughal control over Ajit Singh

Ahom Campaign

Led by Mir Jumla (1662)
Against Ahoms of Assam

🏰 Conquests

Bijapur annexed (1686)
Golconda annexed (1687)

⚖️ Religious Policy

🔴 Strict Orthodox Rule

Reimposed Jaziya (1679)
Banned:
- Music in court 🎵❌
- Jharokha Darshan
- Nauroz festival
Appointed Muhtasibs (moral police)
Compiled:
- Fatwa-i-Alamgiri

👉 Tried to make India a strict Islamic state

🕌 Architecture

Built Bibi Ka Maqbara

(called Mini Taj Mahal)

⚰️ Death

Died in 1707
Buried at Khuldabad (near Aurangabad)

📉 Decline of Mughal Empire

⚠️ Main Causes

Weak successors after Aurangzeb
Continuous wars of succession
Aurangzeb’s policies:
- Religious intolerance ❌
- Long Deccan wars 💸
Jagirdari crisis (economic issues)
Rise of regional powers:
- Marathas
- Sikhs
- Jats
Foreign invasions:
- Nadir Shah (1739)
- Ahmad Shah Abdali

🧠 Quick Revision Tricks

Aurangzeb = Expansion + Strict Islam + Revolts
Shivaji = Biggest challenge
1679 = Jaziya reimposed
1707 = Death → Decline begins

👑 Later Mughals (After Aurangzeb)

👉 Period = Decline of Mughal Empire

🟤 1. Bahadur Shah I (1707–1712)

Real name: Muazzam
Title: Shah Alam I
Called “Shah-i-Bekhabar” (careless king)

⭐ Policies

Made peace with:
- Guru Gobind Singh
- Chhatrasal
Gave Sardeshmukhi to Marathas
Released Shahu (Maratha ruler)

⚔️ Events

Fought Banda Singh Bahadur
Could not abolish Jaziya completely

🟡 2. Jahandar Shah (1712–1713)

Became king with help of Zulfiqar Khan
First puppet ruler 🤖
Abolished Jaziya

🔵 3. Farrukhsiyar (1713–1719)

Became ruler with help of Sayyid Brothers (Kingmakers)
Important events:
- Execution of Banda Bahadur
- Murdered by Sayyid Brothers

📌 Important

British East India Company got trading privileges (Farman of 1717)

🟣 4. Muhammad Shah (1719–1748)

Known as “Rangeela” 🎭 (pleasure-loving)

⚠️ Key Developments

Decline of central authority
Rise of regional states:
- Murshid Quli Khan → Bengal
- Saadat Khan → Awadh
- Nizam-ul-Mulk → Hyderabad

⚔️ Major Invasion

Nadir Shah invaded (1739)
- Battle of Karnal
- Looted:
  - Peacock Throne 🦚
  - Koh-i-Noor

🔴 5. Ahmad Shah Bahadur (1748–1754)

Weak ruler
Repeated invasions by

Ahmad Shah Abdali

⚫ 6. Alamgir II (1754–1759)

Abdali invaded Delhi again
Period of chaos and instability

⚔️ 7. Third Battle of Panipat (1761)

Between:
- Ahmad Shah Abdali
- Marathas led by Sadashiv Rao Bhau

👉 Result:

Marathas defeated ❌
Huge setback to Indian powers

🟢 8. Shah Alam II (1759–1806)

⚔️ Key Event

Battle of Buxar (1764)
- Defeated by British

📌 Aftermath

Became pensioner of East India Company
Lived under British protection

📉 Summary: Why Mughals Declined

⚠️ Main Reasons

Weak rulers after Aurangzeb
Court politics & conspiracies
Rise of regional powers (Bengal, Awadh, Hyderabad)
Foreign invasions:
- Nadir Shah (1739)
- Abdali (multiple times)
Rise of British East India Company

🧠 Quick Revision Trick

👉 “After Aurangzeb = Decline + Puppet Kings + Foreign Invasions”

🏰 1. Delhi Sultanate (Tughlaqs → Lodhis)

🔹 Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq (1325–1351)

👉 Known for ambitious but failed experiments

Five Major Projects:

Taxation in Doab (increased taxes → revolt)
Transfer of capital: Delhi → Daulatabad
Token currency (bronze coins failed ❌)
Khurasan expedition (never executed properly)
Qarachil expedition (failed in Himalayas)

Other points:

Set up Diwan-i-Kohi (agriculture dept)
Built Jahanpanah city
Described by Ibn Battuta

🔹 Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388)

👉 More practical ruler

Key features:

Made Iqta hereditary
Promoted irrigation (canals)
Introduced taxes:
- Kharaj (land tax)
- Jaziya (even on Brahmins)
Built cities: Fatehabad, Hisar, Jaunpur
Set up:
- Diwan-i-Khairat (charity)
- Diwan-i-Bandagan (slaves)
Brought Ashokan pillars to Delhi

🔻 Later Tughlaqs & Decline

Weak rulers after Firoz Shah
Provinces became independent
Major event:

👉 Timur’s Invasion of India

👑 2. Sayyid & Lodhi Dynasty

🔹 Sayyid Dynasty (1414–1451)

Founded by Khizr Khan
Weak rulers → decline

🔹 Lodhi Dynasty (1451–1526)

🟢 Bahlol Lodhi

Founder, Afghan ruler

🟢 Sikandar Lodhi

Founded Agra
Efficient administration
Religious intolerance

🔴 Ibrahim Lodhi

Faced rebellion
Defeated in

👉 First Battle of Panipat by Babur

🏛️ 3. Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1565)

🔹 Founders:

Harihara I
Bukka Raya I

🔹 Krishnadevaraya (Greatest Ruler)

Golden age of Telugu literature
Wrote Amuktamalyada
Patron of Ashta Diggajas
Contemporary of Babur

⚔️ Important Battle:

👉 Battle of Talikota
➡️ Vijayanagara defeated → decline

🔹 Systems:

Nayankara system → land to military chiefs
Ayagar system → village administration

🕌 4. Bahmani Kingdom & Deccan States

🔹 Founder:

Alauddin Bahman Shah

🔹 Famous Minister:

Mahmud Gawan

🔻 Decline → 5 Deccan Sultanates:

Bijapur
Golconda
Ahmednagar
Bidar
Berar

🙏 5. Bhakti Movement

🔹 Key Ideas:

Equality
Devotion to God
Rejection of caste system

🔹 Important Saints:

Ramananda → North India Bhakti founder
Kabir → Nirguna Bhakti
Guru Nanak
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
Mirabai
Tulsidas

🕌 6. Sufi Movement

🔹 Features:

Love for God
Equality
Spiritual connection

🔹 Important Orders:

⭐ Chishti Order

Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti
Nizamuddin Auliya

🏹 7. Mughal Empire

🔹 Babur (1526–1530)

Founded Mughal Empire
Won:
- First Battle of Panipat
- Battle of Khanwa

🔹 Akbar (1556–1605) ⭐

Achievements:

Religious tolerance (Sulh-i-Kul)
Abolished Jaziya
Introduced:
- Mansabdari system
- Din-i-Ilahi

🔟 Navratnas:

Birbal
Tansen
Abul Fazl
Raja Todar Mal

🔹 Jahangir

Chain of justice (Zanjir-i-Adl)
Wife: Nur Jahan

🔹 Shah Jahan

Built:
- Taj Mahal
Golden age of Mughal architecture

🔹 Aurangzeb (1658–1707)

Orthodox ruler
Reimposed Jaziya
Expanded empire maximum

⚔️ Decline of Mughals

Weak successors
Continuous wars
Rise of Marathas
Foreign invasions (Nadir Shah, Abdali)

📌 Final Tip for Exam

👉 Focus on:

Chronology
Policies (Akbar vs Aurangzeb)
Battles (Panipat, Talikota)
Bhakti & Sufi saints

🏇 Mansabdari System (Mughal Empire)

The Mansabdari system was introduced to organize nobility and military service in the Mughal Empire (especially developed under Akbar).

🔑 Key Features

A Mansab (rank) determined:
- Official status in hierarchy
- Military responsibility
Each officer had two ranks:
- Zat → personal status & salary
- Sawar → number of cavalry soldiers to maintain

💰 Revenue Collection Systems

Zabti System

Based on measurement of land and crop yield
Revenue fixed according to production
Developed under Todar Mal (Akbar’s finance minister)
Standard unit: Bigha
Based on average produce and average price (last 10 years)

Kankut System

Based on estimated yield of crops
Less precise than Zabti

Dahsala System

Refined form of Zabti system
Average yield & price calculated over 10 years
Fixed state share (about 1/3rd of produce)

Jagirdari System

Land assigned to nobles (Jagirdars)
Jagirdar collected revenue instead of salary
Land types:
- Khalisa → directly under emperor
- Jagir → assigned to nobles
- Inam / Suyurghal → granted to religious persons

Ijara System

Revenue farming system
Land given to contractors (middlemen)
They paid fixed amount to state but collected freely from farmers → often caused exploitation

🏰 Mughal Architecture (Key Rulers & Contributions)

🟡 Babur

Babur

Built mosques at Panipat and Sambhal

🟠 Humayun

Humayun

Dinpanah city (Delhi)
Humayun’s Tomb (completed later by Haji Begum’s efforts)

🔴 Akbar

Akbar

Fatehpur Sikri:
- Buland Darwaza
- Diwan-i-Khas
- Panch Mahal
- Jodha Bai Palace
Agra Fort development

🟣 Jahangir

Jahangir

Patron of painting (Indo-Persian style)
Shalimar Bagh (Lahore)
Itimad-ud-Daulah Tomb (pietra dura)

⚪ Shah Jahan

Shah Jahan

Taj Mahal (Agra)
Red Fort (Delhi)
Jama Masjid (Delhi)
Moti Masjid (Agra)
Shalimar Gardens (Lahore)

⚫ Aurangzeb

Aurangzeb

Badshahi Mosque (Lahore)
Bibi Ka Maqbara (Aurangabad)

🎨 Mughal Painting

New themes:
- Court life
- Battles
Famous painters:
- Jaswant
- Daswanth
Peak period: Jahangir’s reign
Features:
- Peacock blue, Indian red colors
- Strong Persian influence

📌 Quick Revision Trick

Akbar → Administration + Expansion
Jahangir → Painting
Shah Jahan → Architecture
Aurangzeb → Religious buildings + decline phase

🎨 Mughal Era Painting

👑 Rulers & Development

🟡 Humayun

Humayun

Brought Persian artists to India
Laid foundation of Mughal painting tradition
Introduced refined Persian style

🔴 Akbar

Akbar

Established formal painting workshop (karkhana)
Fusion of Persian + Indian styles
Major works: illustrated manuscripts like Akbarnama

🟣 Jahangir

Jahangir

Golden age of Mughal painting
Strong focus on realism (nature, portraits, animals)
Use of halo (divine light) around rulers

🎨 Famous Mughal Painters

Mir Sayyid Ali
Abdus Samad
Basawan
Daswanth
Bishan Das
Abdul Samad
Ustad Mansur (famous for animal paintings)
Farrukh Beg
Jamshed
Hassan

📚 Mughal Period Literature

📖 Important Scholars & Writers

Abul Fazal (court historian of Akbar)
Abdul Badauni
Khwaja Nizamuddin
Jahangir (memoirs writer)
Hamid
Khafi Khan
Dara Shikoh
Ishwar Das
Muhammad Salih
Khan Abdur Rahman

📜 Important Literary Works

Ain-i-Akbari
Akbarnama
Tuzuk-i-Baburi (translated from Turkic to Persian)
Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri
Padshah Nama
Shahjahanama
Fatuhat-i-Alamgiri
Tarikh-i-Alfi
Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh
Tabaqat-i-Akbari
Safinat-ul-Auliya
Bhagavad Gita (translated works during Mughal period)
Razm-nama (illustrated Mahabharata in Persian)

⚔️ Sher Shah Suri and Afghan Empire (1540–1545)

👤 Early Life

Real name: Farid
Son of Hasan, Jagirdar of Sasaram
Worked under Babar Khan Lohani
Became Deputy Governor of Bihar

🏆 Rise to Power

Took title “Sher Shah” after victory
Defeated Humayun at Battle of Chausa (1539)
Defeated Humayun again at Battle of Kannauj (1540)
Expanded empire from Bengal to Banaras
Defeated Rajput forces in Battle of Sammel (1544)

⚰️ Death

Died in 1545 during siege of Kalinjar fort
Accident caused by explosion of gunpowder

🏛️ Administration System

📍 Administrative Division

Empire divided into:
- 47 Sarkars
- Further divided into Parganas

🏘️ Pargana System

Group of villages
Officials:
- Shiqdar → law & order
- Amil / Munsif → revenue collection

🏅 Key Contributions of Sher Shah Suri

Strong centralized administration
Efficient land revenue system
Improved governance structure (later used by Mughals)

📌 Quick Revision Trick

Humayun → Persian foundation
Akbar → Organization + synthesis
Jahangir → Realistic painting peak
Sher Shah → Administration & reforms

🏛️ Central Administration (Sher Shah Suri)

Sher Shah Suri

🏢 Central Departments

Diwan-i-Wizarat → Revenue & Finance Department
Military administration (organized army system)
Other departments managed administration efficiently

📬 Postal System

Introduced regular postal service
Used for:
- Communication
- Government dispatches
- Administrative correspondence

⚖️ Local Administration & Justice

Amin → Revenue officer at pargana level
Qazi → handled criminal cases
Introduced principle of local responsibility for local crimes

💰 Revenue System (Sher Shah Suri)

📏 Land Revenue Method

Land measured using Sikandari-gaz
Tax fixed at 1/3rd of average produce

📜 Revenue Documents

Patta → land record given to peasants
Qabuliyat → agreement of tax & rights

🚜 Key Features

Zamindars reduced/removed from revenue collection
Direct tax collection from peasants

💰 Currency & Trade

Introduced silver rupiya (rupiya currency)
Promoted trade by:
- Reducing customs duties
- Improving market system

🛣️ Roads & Transport

Built highways called “arteries of the empire”
Constructed sarais (rest houses) on roads
Restored Grand Trunk Road:
- From Sonargaon (Bengal) to Peshawar

🏰 Architecture

Built Purana Qila (Delhi)
Built tomb at Sasaram (Bihar)

Literature During His Reign

Padmavat by Malik Muhammad Jayasi
Tarikh-i-Shershahi by Abbas Khan Sarwani

The Maratha Age – Shivaji

Shivaji

👤 Early Life

Born in hill fort Shivneri
Father: Shahji Bhonsle (Bijapur service)
Mother: Jijabai (major influence)
Mentors:
- Dadaji Konddev (administration training)
- Guru Ramdas (spiritual guidance)

🏰 Early Conquests

1646 → captured Torna Fort
Built forts at Raigarh & Pratapgarh
1647 → took control of his jagir

Major Conflicts

Afzal Khan Incident (1659)

Killed Afzal Khan (Bijapur general)
Bijapur later recognized Shivaji’s independence

Conflict with Mughals

Aurangzeb

Shaista Khan attacked Shivaji (1660)
Shivaji retaliated by attacking Mughal camp and plundering Surat

Treaty of Purandar (1665)

Signed with Raja Jai Singh
Shivaji:
- Gave some forts to Mughals
- Agreed to visit Mughal court at Agra

Escape from Agra (1666)

Placed under house arrest
Escaped cleverly with son Sambhaji

Later Achievements

Recovered lost forts
Defeated Mughals at Battle of Salher (1672)

Quick Revision Trick

Sher Shah → Administration + Roads + Currency
Shivaji → Guerrilla warfare + Forts + Resistance
Aurangzeb → Mughal expansion vs Marathas

Central Administration (Sher Shah Suri)

Sher Shah Suri

Central Departments

Diwan-i-Wizarat → Revenue & Finance Department
Military administration (organized army system)
Other departments managed administration efficiently

Postal System

Introduced regular postal service
Used for:
- Communication
- Government dispatches
- Administrative correspondence

️ Local Administration & Justice

Amin → Revenue officer at pargana level
Qazi → handled criminal cases
Introduced principle of local responsibility for local crimes

Revenue System (Sher Shah Suri)

Land Revenue Method

Land measured using Sikandari-gaz
Tax fixed at 1/3rd of average produce

Revenue Documents

Patta → land record given to peasants
Qabuliyat → agreement of tax & rights

Key Features

Zamindars reduced/removed from revenue collection
Direct tax collection from peasants

Currency & Trade

Introduced silver rupiya (rupiya currency)
Promoted trade by:
- Reducing customs duties
- Improving market system

Roads & Transport

Built highways called “arteries of the empire”
Constructed sarais (rest houses) on roads
Restored Grand Trunk Road:
- From Sonargaon (Bengal) to Peshawar

Architecture

Built Purana Qila (Delhi)
Built tomb at Sasaram (Bihar)

Literature During His Reign

Padmavat by Malik Muhammad Jayasi
Tarikh-i-Shershahi by Abbas Khan Sarwani

️ The Maratha Age – Shivaji

Shivaji

Early Life

Born in hill fort Shivneri
Father: Shahji Bhonsle (Bijapur service)
Mother: Jijabai (major influence)
Mentors:
- Dadaji Konddev (administration training)
- Guru Ramdas (spiritual guidance)

Early Conquests

1646 → captured Torna Fort
Built forts at Raigarh & Pratapgarh
1647 → took control of his jagir

️ Major Conflicts

️ Afzal Khan Incident (1659)

Killed Afzal Khan (Bijapur general)
Bijapur later recognized Shivaji’s independence

️ Conflict with Mughals

Aurangzeb

Shaista Khan attacked Shivaji (1660)
Shivaji retaliated by attacking Mughal camp and plundering Surat

Treaty of Purandar (1665)

Signed with Raja Jai Singh
Shivaji:
- Gave some forts to Mughals
- Agreed to visit Mughal court at Agra

Escape from Agra (1666)

Placed under house arrest
Escaped cleverly with son Sambhaji

Later Achievements

Recovered lost forts
Defeated Mughals at Battle of Salher (1672)

Quick Revision Trick

Sher Shah → Administration + Roads + Currency
Shivaji → Guerrilla warfare + Forts + Resistance

Aurangzeb → Mughal expansion vs Marathas Shivaji’s Coronation & Title

Shivaji

Crowned in 1674 at Raigarh Fort
Assumed title:
- Chhatrapati (Sovereign ruler)
- Haindava Dharmodharak (Protector of Hindu religion)
Became independent ruler of Maharashtra
Died in 1680

🏛️ Shivaji’s Administration

🗺️ Administrative Division

Empire divided into:
- 3 Provinces (Prants) → governed by Viceroys
Further divisions:
- Prants → Tarafs / Parganas
- Villages → smallest unit
  - Headed by Patel (village headman)

🧑‍⚖️ Ashtapradhan Council (8 Ministers)

Not a collective cabinet — each minister worked directly under Shivaji

📋 Ministers & Roles

Peshwa (Mukhya Pradhan) → Prime Minister / Finance
Senapati (Sar-i-Naubat) → Military Commander
Amatya (Majumdar) → Accounts & Finance
Waqenavis / Mantri → Intelligence, household affairs, posts
Sachiv (Surunavis) → Royal correspondence
Sumanta (Dabir) → Foreign affairs & royal ceremonies
Nyayadhish → Justice system
Pandit Rao → Religious & charity matters

💰 Revenue Administration

Land revenue based on measurement system
Used Kathi system (from Malwa/Amber region)

📌 Important Taxes

Chauth → 1/4 of revenue paid to avoid Maratha raids
Sardeshmukhi → 10% extra tax (hereditary claim over Maharashtra lands)

⚔️ Marathas After Shivaji

Shivaji

Sambhaji (1680–1689)

Son of Shivaji
Weak administration
Provided shelter to Mughal rebel Akbar (son of Aurangzeb)

Aurangzeb
Executed by Aurangzeb
His son Shahu was taken captive

Rajaram (1689–1700)

Younger son of Shivaji
Continued resistance against Mughals
Died in 1700
His wife Tarabai led the resistance
Son: Shivaji II placed on throne

Shahu & Civil War (After 1707)

Released by Bahadur Shah after Aurangzeb’s death
Fought civil war against Tarabai
Helped by Balaji Vishwanath
Won Battle of Khed
Established rule at Satara
Tarabai ruled at Kolhapur

Rise of Peshwas

Real power shifted to Peshwas
Became de facto rulers of Maratha Empire

Quick Revision Trick

Shivaji → Founder + forts + administration
Ashtapradhan → 8 ministers system
Chauth + Sardeshmukhi → Maratha taxes
Sambhaji → Execution by Aurangzeb
Shahu → Peshwa system begins

Peshwas (1713–1818)

Balaji Vishwanath (1713–1720)

Strengthened Peshwa office power
Made Peshwa the functional head of Maratha Empire
Gained title “Sena Karta” (1708) from Shahu
Became Peshwa in 1713

Major Diplomatic Work

Agreement with Sayyid Brothers
Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar recognized Shahu as ruler of Swarajya
Helped Sayyid Brothers overthrow Farrukhsiyar

️ Peshwa Baji Rao I (1720–1740)

Greatest Maratha commander after Shivaji
Master of guerrilla warfare
Expanded Maratha power to its peak

Achievements

Forced Mughals to grant chauth rights
Conquered:
- Salsette
- Bassein (1733) from Portuguese
Defeated Nizam-ul-Mulk near Bhopal
Treaty of Daurai Sarai (1737):
- Gained Malwa & Bundelkhand

Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb) (1740–1761)

Son of Baji Rao I
Continued expansion policy

Mughal Agreement

With Mughal emperor Ahmad Shah Bahadur
Marathas agreed to protect Mughal Empire
In return received chauth rights

️ Major Event

Third Battle of Panipat (1761)
- Marathas vs Ahmad Shah Abdali
- Son Vishwas Rao died
- Massive Maratha defeat

Madhav Rao I (1761–1772)

Son of Balaji Baji Rao
Helped restore Maratha power after Panipat

️ Key Point

Raghunath Rao became regent (de facto ruler)
Strong leadership revived empire temporarily

Later Peshwas (Decline Phase)

Narayan Rao (1772–1773) → short reign
Sawai Madhav Rao (1773–1795) → minor Peshwa under regency
Baji Rao II (1795–1818) → last Peshwa

End of Peshwa Rule

Peshwa authority weakened over time
Defeated by British in Third Anglo-Maratha War
Ended in 1818

Quick Revision Trick

Balaji Vishwanath → Power of Peshwa begins
Baji Rao I → Expansion peak
Balaji Baji Rao → Panipat disaster
Madhav Rao I → Recovery
Baji Rao II → End of empire

Advent of Europeans in India (Modern India)

🇵🇹 Portuguese in India

⚓ Arrival

First Europeans to reach India by sea route
Vasco da Gama discovered Cape Route (1498)
Reached Calicut (Kerala) via Cape of Good Hope
Welcomed by Zamorin (ruler of Calicut)
Started European trade in India

🏰 Important Portuguese Centres

Cochin (initial capital, 1502)
Later capital shifted to Goa
Other centres:
- Calicut
- Cannanore
- Diu
- Daman
- Pulicat (early base)

Important Governors

Francisco de Almeida (1505–1509)
- Introduced Blue Water Policy
Afonso de Albuquerque (1509 onwards)
- Captured Goa (1510)
- Introduced imperial expansion policy
Nino da Cunha (1529–1538)
- Capital shifted to Goa (1530)
- Captured Diu & Bassein

Decline

Lost territories to:
- Marathas (Salsette & Bassein in 1739)
- Dutch & British
Only Goa, Diu, Daman remained till 1961

Dutch in India

Centres

Masulipatnam (1605)
Pulicat (1610)
Surat (1616)
Cochin, Patna, Balasore, Chinsura, Nagapattinam

️ Decline

Defeated by British in Battle of Bedara (1759)

English / British in India

Early Arrival

English East India Company formed in 1599
Captain Hawkins got permission from Jahangir (1609)
Sir Thomas Roe visited Mughal court (1615)

Important Factories & Centres

Early Settlements

Surat (1608) → first factory
Madras (1639) → Fort St. George
Bombay (1661) → given by Portuguese as dowry to England
Calcutta (1690) → founded by Job Charnock

Calcutta Development

Sutanati, Kalikata, Govindpur merged
Fort William built (1700)

Key Event

1717: John Surman obtained farman from Mughal emperor Farrukhsiyar
Called “Magna Carta of British in India”
Gave major trading privileges to British

️ Decline of Other Europeans

Portuguese → reduced to Goa, Daman, Diu
Dutch → defeated by British
British became dominant power in India

Quick Revision Trick

Portuguese → First arrival (Vasco da Gama)
Dutch → Trade competitors (short-lived)
English → Ultimate rulers

One-Line Memory Aid

Vasco da Gama → Sea route to India
Almeida → Blue Water Policy
Albuquerque → Goa captured
Job Charnock → Calcutta
Farrukhsiyar → British trade rights

French in India

Formation & Arrival

French East India Company formed in 1664
- Under Colbert (France)
- During reign of Louis XIV

Important Centres

Surat (1668) → Francois Caron
Masulipatnam (1669)
Pondicherry (1673) → later capital
Chandernagore (Bengal)
Mahe, Yanam, Karaikal

️ Anglo-French Rivalry

Started under Governor Dupleix (1742)
French power revived earlier by:
- Lenoir
- Dumas (1720–1742)

Decline

Lost power to British in Carnatic Wars
Only small territories remained

Danes (Danish in India)

Arrived in India in 1616
Settlements:
- Tranquebar (1620, Tamil Nadu)
- Serampore (1676, Bengal)
Serampore → headquarters
Sold settlements to British in 1854

Independent States (18th Century India)

Hyderabad

Founder

Nizam-ul-Mulk

Founded Hyderabad state in 1724
Original name: Chin Qilich Khan
Titles:
- Khan-i-Duran
- Nizam-ul-Mulk

Features

Diwan: Puran Chand
Carnatic was part of Hyderabad Subah
Later Carnatic Nawab became independent → rivalry with Hyderabad

Importance

Hyderabad remained independent till 1948
Supported British in 1857 Revolt

Awadh

Founder

Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk

Appointed Governor in 1722 by Muhammad Shah

Features

Highly tolerant administration
Important post held by Maharaja Nawab Rai (Hindu officer)
Safdar Jung succeeded him

Importance

Became powerful semi-independent state
Strong Mughal connection initially

Mysore

Haider Ali

Hyder Ali

Started as soldier → Commander → ruler
Took control in 1761
Built modern arsenal at Dindigul
Fought First Anglo-Mysore War (1767–69)
Died during Second Anglo-Mysore War (1782)

Tipu Sultan

Son of Haider Ali
Ruled 1782–1799
Called “Tiger of Mysore”
Introduced modern reforms

Achievements

Resisted British strongly
Planted “Tree of Liberty” at Srirangapatnam
Maintained diplomatic contacts (including France)
Supported religious tolerance

️ Death

Killed in Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799)
Fell defending Srirangapatnam

Quick Revision Trick

French → Pondicherry + Dupleix + Carnatic Wars
Danes → Tranquebar + Serampore (small traders)
Hyderabad → Nizam-ul-Mulk
Awadh → Saadat Khan
Mysore → Haider Ali + Tipu Sultan (strong resistance)

One-Line Memory Aid

Louis XIV → French Company
Dupleix → Anglo-French conflict
Nizam → Hyderabad state
Saadat Khan → Awadh
Tipu Sultan → Anti-British warrior

Bengal (18th Century History)

Early Nawabs of Bengal

Murshid Quli Khan (1717–1727)

Made Governor of Bengal (1717) and Orissa (1719)
Shifted capital from Dacca → Murshidabad
Strong administrative reforms

Shuja-ud-din (1727–1739)

Muhammad Shah

Became Governor of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa
Maintained stability in Bengal

Sarfaraz Khan (1739–1740)

Son of Shuja-ud-din
Defeated and killed by Alivardi Khan

Alivardi Khan (1740–1756)

Took power after killing Sarfaraz Khan
Strengthened Bengal administration
Controlled European settlements:
- British at Calcutta
- French at Chandernagore

Siraj-ud-Daula (1756–1757)

Siraj-ud-Daulah

Last independent Nawab of Bengal

️ Conflict with British

Opposed misuse of Dastaks (free trade passes)
Captured:
- Kasimbazar factory
- Fort William (Calcutta)

Black Hole Tragedy (1756)

Incident of imprisonment of British prisoners in Calcutta

️ Battle of Plassey (1757)

Battle of Plassey

Fought on 23 June 1757
British led by Robert Clive
Siraj-ud-Daula defeated

Betrayal inside Bengal

Mir Jafar (key ally of British)
Jagat Seth (banker)
Omichand
Manik Chand

Result

Siraj-ud-Daula killed (by Mir Jafar’s forces)
British control begins in Bengal

Mir Jafar (1757–1760)

Mir Jafar

First Nawab under British influence
Granted free trade rights to East India Company
Later replaced due to inefficiency

Mir Qasim (1760–1764)

Mir Qasim

Reforms

Shifted capital to Monghyr
Tried to stop British misuse of Dastaks

️ Revolt

Broke alliance with British

️ Battle of Buxar (1764)

Battle of Buxar

Allies against British

Mir Qasim (Bengal)
Shuja-ud-daula (Awadh)
Shah Alam II (Mughal Emperor)

Result

British victory
British became dominant power in India

Treaty of Allahabad (1765)

Treaty of Allahabad

Company got Diwani rights of:
- Bengal
- Bihar
- Orissa
Nawab retained Nizamat (administration)
Annual payment: ₹26 lakh to Mughal emperor Shah Alam II

Dual Government System (1765–1772)

Introduced in Bengal
Company collected revenue (Diwani)
Nawab handled administration (Nizamat)
Led to corruption and mismanagement

End of Dual System

Abolished by Warren Hastings in 1772

Quick Revision Trick

Murshid Quli → Capital shift
Siraj-ud-Daula → Plassey war
Mir Jafar → Puppet Nawab
Mir Qasim → Resistance
Buxar → Final British victory
Allahabad Treaty → Diwani rights

One-Line Memory Aid

Plassey → betrayal victory
Buxar → final control
Allahabad → revenue rights
Dual Govt → corruption system

️ Ascendancy of the British in India

️ Carnatic Wars (France vs England)

First Carnatic War (1746–1748)

War between France and England
French under Dupleix defeated Nawab of Carnatic’s forces
Battle of St. Thome
French captured Madras
Ended by Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)

Second Carnatic War (1749–1754)

Joseph François Dupleix
Robert Clive

Alliances:
- French → Muzaffar Jung (Hyderabad)
- French → Chanda Sahib (Carnatic)
British ultimately won
Siege of Arcot (1751) → Robert Clive became famous
Ended by Treaty of Pondicherry (1754)

Third Carnatic War (1758–1763)

French under Count de Lally
British victory at Battle of Wandiwash (1760)
Pondicherry returned to France via Treaty of Paris (1763)
End of French power in India

Anglo-Mysore Wars

First Anglo-Mysore War (1766–1769)

Hyder Ali

Hyder Ali defeated British
Treaty of Madras (1769) signed

Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780–1784)

Hyder Ali + Tipu Sultan vs British
Battle of Porto Novo (1781) → British victory
Ended by Treaty of Mangalore (1784)

Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790–1792)

Tipu Sultan

British allied with Marathas & Nizam
British captured Bangalore
Ended by Treaty of Seringapatam (1792)
Tipu lost half of his territory

Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799)

Led by Lord Wellesley
Tipu Sultan died fighting at Srirangapatnam
End of Mysore resistance
British supremacy established in South India

Anglo-Maratha Wars

First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–1782)

British supported Raghunath Rao
Marathas defeated British at first
Treaty of Salbai (1782) signed

Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1806)

Arthur Wellesley

British fought Marathas after Treaty of Bassein (1802)
British gained major territories

Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818)

Final war between British and Marathas
Marathas defeated decisively
End of Maratha Empire
British rule established in India

Anglo-Sikh Relations (Brief)

Began after death of Ranjit Singh (1839)
Eventually led to Anglo-Sikh Wars (later phase of British expansion)

Quick Revision Trick

Carnatic Wars → France vs Britain
Arcot → Clive’s rise
Wandiwash → French defeat
Mysore → Hyder Ali & Tipu Sultan resistance
Marathas → final British victory (1818)

One-Line Memory Aid

Dupleix → French rise
Clive → British power begins
Wandiwash → French exit
Tipu Sultan → final strong resistance
Marathas → last major fall

Guru Period (Sikh Gurus)

Guru Nanak (1469–1539)

Guru Nanak

Born in Talwandi
Founded Nanak Panth
First Sikh Guru

Guru Angad (1539–1552)

Introduced Gurmukhi script

Guru Amar Das (1552–1574)

Divided Sikh organization into 22 Manjis
Akbar visited him

Guru Ram Das (1574–1581)

Founded Amritsar
Built sacred tank (Sarovar)
Started construction of Harmandir Sahib

Guru Arjan Dev (1581–1606)

Compiled Adi Granth
Completed Amritsar construction
Founded Taran Taran & Kartarpur
Executed by Jahangir

️ Guru Hargobind (1606–1645)

Militarized Sikhism (warrior tradition)
Built Akal Takht
Fought Mughals
Took title “Padshah”

Guru Har Rai (1645–1661)

Met Dara Shikoh

Guru Har Krishan (1661–1664)

Became Guru at young age

Guru Tegh Bahadur (1664–1675)

Guru Tegh Bahadur

Executed by Aurangzeb in Delhi
Martyrdom site: Sis Ganj Gurudwara

Guru Gobind Singh (1675–1708)

Guru Gobind Singh

Founded Khalsa (1699, Baisakhi)
Created Panj Pyare
Introduced 5 Ks:
- Kesh
- Kangha
- Kara
- Kachcha
- Kirpan
Compiled Dasam Granth
Died in 1708 (assassinated)

Sikh Empire

Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1792–1839)

Maharaja Ranjit Singh

Born in Gujranwala
Captured Lahore (1799) → capital
Expanded empire:
- Amritsar
- Multan
- Kashmir
- Peshawar
Built strong Sikh Kingdom

️ Successors

Kharak Singh (1839–40)
Naunihal Singh (1840)
Sher Singh (1841–43)
Dalip Singh (1843–49)

️ Anglo-Sikh Wars

🥇 First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–46)

Sikhs defeated
Treaty of Lahore signed

🥈 Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–49)

Lord Dalhousie

British annexed Punjab (1849)
Sir John Lawrence became administrator

🇲🇲 Anglo-Burmese Wars

🥇 First War (1824–1826)

British captured Rangoon
Treaty of Yandabo (1826)

🥈 Second War (1852)

Annexation of Pegu

🥉 Third War (1885)

British annexed Burma completely
King Thibaw surrendered
Burma separated from India in 1935

🇦🇫 Anglo-Afghan Wars

🥇 First War (1839–1842)

Lord Auckland

Installed Shah Shuja
British faced rebellion
Defeat at Kabul

🥈 Second War (1878–1880)

Lord Lytton

Treaty of Gandamak signed
British controlled Afghan foreign policy

📌 Quick Revision Trick

Sikh Gurus → Religion + Khalsa
Ranjit Singh → Sikh Empire peak
Anglo-Sikh → Punjab annexation (1849)
Burma → 3 wars → full annexation
Afghanistan → buffer state policy

🧠 One-Line Memory Aid

Nanak → Sikhism begins
Arjan → Adi Granth
Gobind → Khalsa
Ranjit Singh → Sikh Empire
Dalhousie → Punjab annexation

⚔️ Anglo-Afghan Wars (Focus: Third War)

🥉 Third Anglo-Afghan War

Third Anglo-Afghan War

Durand Line reaffirmed (border between British India and Afghanistan)
Treaty of Rawalpindi signed
Afghanistan gained full independence in foreign affairs

💰 Drain of Wealth Theory

📉 Meaning

“Drain of Wealth” = transfer of India’s wealth to Britain without adequate return

📚 Key Thinkers

Dadabhai Naoroji

First explained theory in “Poverty and Un-British Rule in India”

Romesh Chunder Dutt

Blamed British economic policies for India’s poverty
Wrote Economic History of India

📊 Key Facts

Drain began after Battle of Plassey (1757)
After 1765 (Diwani rights), Company used Bengal revenue to:
- Buy Indian goods (“Company investments”)
- Export them to Britain
India lost wealth continuously under British rule

📈 Phases of British Economic Policy

1️⃣ Early Phase (1600–1757)

East India Company = trading company
Trade in spices, textiles, precious metals
Limited political control

2️⃣ Mercantile Phase (1757–1813)

After Plassey → Company gained political power
Monopoly over trade
Bengal revenue used for trade investment
Exploitation of Indian artisans (especially Bengal weavers)

3️⃣ Industrial Phase (1813–1858)

After Charter Act 1813
“One-way free trade” allowed British goods into India
Indian markets flooded with machine-made British goods
Indian industries declined sharply

4️⃣ Finance Imperialism (1858 onwards)

British capital investment in India
Banking, railways, export-import firms controlled by Britain
Railways used for extraction of raw materials
India became dependent economy

🏛️ Land Revenue Systems

🟤 Permanent Settlement (Zamindari System)

Lord Cornwallis

Introduced in 1793
Areas:
- Bengal
- Bihar
- Orissa
- Banaras
- Northern Madras

📌 Features

Zamindars = landowners
Fixed revenue system (British share fixed)
Zamindars collected rent from peasants
Often led to exploitation of tenants
Zamindars stayed in cities → absentee landlords

🟢 Ryotwari System

Thomas Munro

Introduced in:
- Madras
- Bombay
- Assam

📌 Features

Direct settlement between Government and Ryots (peasants)
Revenue based on:
- Soil quality
- Type of crop
Fixed for up to 30 years
Based on Ricardo’s economic theory
Peasants had relatively more security than Zamindari system

📌 Quick Revision Trick

Naoroji → Drain of Wealth
Plassey → Drain begins
Cornwallis → Permanent Settlement
Munro → Ryotwari system
1813 → Industrial exploitation begins

🧠 One-Line Memory Aid

Drain → India → Britain wealth transfer
Permanent → Zamindar power
Ryotwari → Peasant direct tax
Industrial → British goods flood India
Finance imperialism → railway + banks control

ffi Mahalwari System . GENERAL KNOWLEDGE- Indian History settlement was made with the vi11age, Introduced in the area of Ganga valley, North-West Frontier Provinces parts of Central India and Punjab. o Revenue Settlement was to be made by village or estates with landlords. A which maintained a form of common ownership knor.rm as Bhaichara or with Mahals, which were group of villages’ Revenue was periodically revised. REVOLT OF 1857 CAUSES OF THE REVOLT . Political Nana Sahib was refused pension as he was the adoPted son of Peshwa Baji Rao-II to lead the revolt at Kanpur. . Awadh (Lucknow) was annexed in 1856, on charge of . maiadministration and Jhansi was annexed owing to the Doctrine of Lapse. Military Discrimination Indian soldiers were paid low salaries, they could not rise above the rank of Subedu and. wete tacia\\.3 ins{ted. Religious Discrimination The social reforms by British was against the people’s wiII (widow remarriage, abohtion of sati, school for grls, Christian missionaries etc). Soldiers were asked to use the Enfield Rifles tvith greased @y pork or beef) cartridges. Economic Grievances Heavy taxations, discriminatory tariff policy; destruction of traditional handicrafts that hit peasants, artisans and small zamindars. Outbreak ofthe Revolt . Bengal Resentment in which 19 native infantries of BehramPur, refused to use the newlY introduced Enfield tufle. . Mangal Pandey 34th native infantry fired at the sergeant major of his regiment. Known as a part of Mutiny of Barrackpur. Mangal Pandey was hanged. On 10th May, i857, the sepoys at Meerut refused to use EnfiIed Rifles and revoited. The mutiny spread throughout Uttar Pradesh and sepoys moved to Delhi crying March to Delhi. At Delhi, Bahadur Shah II was declared’shahenshah-i’Hindustan.’ Where the ruiers were loyal to the British, the soldiers revolted as in Gwalior and Indore. In some places, people revolted before the sepoys. In the beginning, the rebels were successful. Europeans were killed, police stations and 1aw courts were attacked and revenue records were destroyed But, the rev o\L was soon supgtessed.. Centres of Revolt and their Leaders . Delhi Bahadur Shah ll. General Bakht Khan . l(anpur Nana Sahib/Dhondhu Pant {adopted son of Baji Bao-ll) Tantia Tope, Azimullah khan . lhansi Rani Lakshmi Bai . Lucknow Begum Hazrat Mahal, her son Birjis 0adir. . Faizabad Maulavi Ahamdullah . Bareilley Khan Bahadur Khan . Bihar (Anah) Kunwar Singh, Zamindar of Jagdishpur. Suppression of the Revolt . John Lawrence remarked, “Had a single leader of ability arisen among them we must have been lost beyond redemption.” Delhi was captured on 20th September, 1857 by John Nicholson and Bahadur Shah II was deported to Rangoon, where he died in 1862. His sons were shot dead at Delhi.

⚔️ Revolt of 1857 (First War of Independence / Sepoy Mutiny)

🏰 Major Events

🟣 Jhansi

Rani Lakshmibai

Jhansi captured by Hugh Rose on 17 June 1858
Rani Lakshmibai died fighting at the battlefield (near Kalpi)

🔵 Lucknow

Recaptured by British on 21 March 1858
Led by:
- Colin Campbell
- Havelock
- Outram

🔴 Other Events

Nana Sahib and Begum Hazrat Mahal escaped to Nepal
Arrah revolt suppressed by William Taylor and Vincent Eyre
Tatya Tope captured and executed (1859) after betrayal

🤝 Important Feature

Strong Hindu-Muslim unity
Revolt mainly concentrated in North India

👩‍⚔️ Rani Lakshmibai (Jhansi)

Married Raja Gangadhar Rao (1842)
Adopted a son (1853)
British used Doctrine of Lapse to annex Jhansi

Lord Dalhousie
Refused surrender → fought bravely and died in battle (1858)

❌ Causes of Failure of Revolt

Lack of unity and organization
No common national goal
Some rulers supported British:
- Scindias
- Nizam
- Holkars
Inferior weapons and military strength

📉 Impact of Revolt

End of East India Company rule (1858)

Queen Victoria

India came under British Crown rule

🏛️ Administrative Changes

Secretary of State for India created (with Council of 15 members)
Governor-General became Viceroy
Doctrine of Lapse abolished
Princely states assured protection
British adopted Divide and Rule policy
Indian taxpayers bore cost of revolt suppression
Increase in British troops in India

📚 Views on Nature of Revolt

🟡 British & Indian Scholars

Sir John Seeley → Sepoy mutiny (not national movement)
T.R. Holmes → clash of civilization
Outram & Taylor → Hindu-Muslim conspiracy
V.D. Savarkar → First War of Independence
Bipin Chandra → National uprising with limitations
S.N. Sen → partly national in nature
R.C. Majumdar → “neither first, nor national, nor war of independence”

📌 Quick Revision Trick

Jhansi → Rani Lakshmibai heroism
Lucknow → British recapture
Tatya Tope → betrayal + execution
1858 → Company rule ends
Queen Victoria → Crown rule begins

🧠 One-Line Memory Aid

Jhansi → courage
Lucknow → British victory
1858 → Company ends
Viceroy → new system
Divide & Rule → British strategy

🏛️ Governor-Generals of Bengal

👤 Warren Hastings (1772–1785)

Warren Hastings

🏛️ Administrative Reforms

Became Governor of Bengal (1772)
First Governor-General (1773) under Regulating Act 1773
Abolished Dual Government system
Divided Bengal into districts → appointed collectors
Created modern revenue administration system

⚖️ Judicial Reforms

Established Supreme Court at Calcutta
Created:
- Diwani Adalats (civil courts)
- Faujdari Adalats (criminal courts)
- Sadar Diwani & Sadar Nizamat courts (appeals)
Reduced zamindars’ judicial powers

📚 Legal & Cultural Work

Helped define Hindu & Muslim laws
“Code of Gentoo Laws” (Sanskrit legal translation)
Founded Asiatic Society of Bengal (1784) with William Jones

⚔️ Wars During His Period

First Anglo-Maratha War → Treaty of Salbai
Second Anglo-Mysore War → Treaty of Mangalore
Rohilla War (1774)

📜 Important Acts

Pitt’s India Act (1784)
Edmund Burke impeachment case (later acquitted)

👤 Lord Cornwallis (1786–1793)

Lord Cornwallis

🏛️ Major Reforms

Introduced Cornwallis Code (1793)
Separated revenue & judiciary
Created modern civil administration

💰 Land Revenue System

Introduced Permanent Settlement (1793) in Bengal
Zamindars made landowners
Fixed revenue system

👮 Administrative Reforms

Father of Indian Civil Services
Created post of District Judge
Introduced modern police system

⚔️ Wars

Third Anglo-Mysore War
Treaty of Seringapatam (1792)

👤 Sir John Shore (1793–1798)

Sir John Shore

Supported Permanent Settlement planning
Policy of non-interference
First Charter Act (1793)
Battle of Kharda (1795) between Nizam & Marathas

👤 Lord Wellesley (1798–1805)

Lord Wellesley

🏛️ Expansion Policy

Introduced Subsidiary Alliance System
Made India a British-controlled region

⚔️ Major Wars

Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799) → Tipu Sultan died
Second Anglo-Maratha War

🏛️ Administrative Work

Established Fort William College (1800)
Introduced Censorship of Press Act (1799)
Known as “Bengal Tiger”

🤝 Subsidiary Alliance System

📌 Features

Indian rulers had to:
- Keep British troops in their territory
- Pay subsidy for army maintenance
- Accept British Resident
Lost control over foreign policy

📍 First Acceptors

Hyderabad (1798)
Awadh (1801)
Followed by:
- Marathas
- Rajput states
- Mysore (partly)

📌 Quick Revision Trick

Warren Hastings → foundation of British administration
Cornwallis → civil services + Permanent Settlement
John Shore → non-interference
Wellesley → expansion + Subsidiary Alliance

🧠 One-Line Memory Aid

Hastings → courts + reforms
Cornwallis → civil services + land system
Shore → no interference
Wellesley → British expansion

🏛️ Governor-Generals of India (British Rule)

👤 Sir George Barlow (1805–1807)

Sir George Barlow

Introduced Ryotwari System in Madras
Ended Second Anglo-Maratha War settlement phase
Vellore Mutiny (1806) occurred during his time

👤 Lord Minto I (1807–1813)

Lord Minto I

Treaty of Amritsar (1809) with Ranjit Singh
Charter Act of 1813:
- Ended East India Company trade monopoly in India

👤 Lord Hastings (1813–1823)

Lord Hastings

⚔️ Major Wars

Anglo-Nepal War (1814–1816)
Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818)

📜 Treaties & Actions

Treaty of Sangli (1816)
Treaty of Poona (1817)
Suppression of Pindaris (1817–1818)
Expansionist/intervention policy

👤 Lord Amherst (1823–1828)

Lord Amherst

First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826)
Treaty of Yandabo (1826)
Annexation of Bharatpur (1826)

👤 Lord William Bentinck (1828–1835)

Lord William Bentinck

🌟 Reforms

Known as Father of Modern Western Education in India
Abolished Sati (1829)
Suppressed Thugi (1830)
Charter Act 1833 passed
Annexed Coorg (1834)
Medical College in Calcutta (1835)

👤 Sir Charles Metcalfe (1835–1836)

Sir Charles Metcalfe

Known as “Liberator of the Press”
Passed Press Law → freedom of press

👤 Lord Auckland (1836–1842)

Lord Auckland

First Anglo-Afghan War (1839–1842)
Death of Ranjit Singh (1839)

👤 Lord Ellenborough (1842–1844)

Lord Ellenborough

Ended First Anglo-Afghan War
Annexation of Sind (by Charles Napier)
Abolished slavery

👤 Lord Hardinge (1844–1848)

Lord Hardinge I

First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–1846)
Treaty of Lahore signed

👤 Lord Dalhousie (1848–1856)

Lord Dalhousie

⚔️ Wars & Annexations

Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–1849)
Annexation of Punjab
Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852)

🏛️ Major Reforms

Doctrine of Lapse introduced
Abolished titles and pensions
Widow Remarriage Act (1856)
Railways introduced (1853)
Telegraph system introduced
Postal system modernized
Public Works Department established
Engineering College at Roorkee
Planned universities in Calcutta, Bombay, Madras

📜 Important Acts

Charter Act 1853 passed
Wood’s Despatch (1854)
Santhal Uprising (1855–56)

📌 Quick Revision Trick

Barlow → Ryotwari + Vellore Mutiny
Minto → Amritsar Treaty + 1813 Act
Hastings → Expansion + Maratha defeat
Amherst → Burma War
Bentinck → Social reforms
Metcalfe → Press freedom
Auckland → Afghan War
Ellenborough → Sind annexation
Hardinge → Sikh War I
Dalhousie → Modern India builder + annexations

🧠 One-Line Memory Aid

Bentinck → social reformer
Dalhousie → modernization + expansion
Hastings → wars & expansion
Metcalfe → press freedom
Auckland → Afghanistan disaster

👑 Viceroys of India (Post-1857 Period)

👤 Lord Canning (1856–1862)

Lord Canning

⚔️ Major Events

Revolt of 1857 occurred during his time
Last Governor-General of Company rule
First Viceroy of India (after 1858 Act)

🏛️ Administrative Changes

Government of India Act (1858) passed → ended East India Company rule
Doctrine of Lapse withdrawn
Indian Penal Code (1860) introduced
Income Tax introduced (1858)

🎓 Education & Institutions

Universities established in:
- Calcutta
- Bombay
- Madras (1857 idea, later formalised)

📌 Other Events

Indigo riots in Bengal
Indian Councils Act (1861) passed
High Courts Act (1861) → High Courts later established (1865)

👤 Lord Elgin I (1862–1863)

Lord Elgin I

Suppression of Wahabi Movement

👤 Sir John Lawrence (1864–1869)

Sir John Lawrence

High Courts established (Calcutta, Bombay, Madras – 1865)
War with Bhutan (1865)
Punjab Tenancy Act passed

👤 Lord Mayo (1869–1872)

Lord Mayo

🏛️ Administrative Reforms

Financial decentralisation introduced
Provincial financial settlement (1870)
Department of Agriculture and Commerce
Statistical Survey of India
First Census in India (1872)

🎓 Institutions

Mayo College (Ajmer)
Rajkot College (Kathiawar)

⚠️ Important

First Viceroy to be assassinated (Andaman convict, 1872)

👤 Lord Northbrook (1872–1876)

Lord Northbrook

Kuka Movement suppressed
Bihar famine (1876)
Resigned over Afghanistan policy
Trial of Gaekwad of Baroda

👤 Lord Lytton (1876–1880)

Lord Lytton

❌ Unpopular Policies

Delhi Durbar (1877) during famine
Queen declared Kaiser-i-Hind

📜 Laws Passed

Arms Act (1878)
Vernacular Press Act (1878)
Reduced ICS age limit (21 → 19)

⚔️ Wars & Famine

Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878–1880)
Great famine in India
Famine Commission (Starchy Commission)

👤 Lord Ripon (1880–1884)

Lord Ripon

🌟 Reforms (Most Liberal Viceroy)

Repealed Vernacular Press Act (1882)
First Factory Act (1881)
Local Self-Government introduced
Known as Father of Local Self Government

🏛️ Administrative Reforms

Local Boards established (1883–84)
First Official Census (1881)
Famine Code introduced (1883)
Hunter Commission for education reforms (1882)

⚖️ Ilbert Bill Controversy

Allowed Indian judges to try Europeans
Strong opposition from British community
Modified later

🎓 Education

Punjab University founded

📌 Quick Revision Trick

Canning → 1857 + Crown rule begins
Elgin → Wahabi suppression
Lawrence → High Courts
Mayo → Census + decentralisation
Northbrook → famine + Afghanistan issue
Lytton → Vernacular Press Act + famine
Ripon → reforms + local self government

🧠 One-Line Memory Aid

Canning → transition from Company to Crown
Mayo → administration + census
Lytton → repression & laws
Ripon → reforms & democracy roots

👑 Viceroys of India (1884–1921)

👤 Lord Dufferin (1884–1888)

Lord Dufferin

🏛️ Major Events

Third Anglo-Burmese War (1885)
Annexation of Burma
Indian National Congress (INC) founded in 1885

📌 Other Facts

Called INC a “microscopic minority”
Bengal Tenancy Act (1885)

👤 Lord Lansdowne (1888–1894)

Lord Lansdowne

🏛️ Laws & Reforms

Factory Act (1891)
Indian Councils Act (1892)
Civil Services divided into:
- Imperial
- Provincial
- Subordinate

📜 Important Acts

Age of Consent Act (1891)
- Marriage of girls below 12 prohibited
Durand Commission (1893)
- Defined Indo-Afghan border (Durand Line)

👤 Lord Elgin II (1894–1899)

Lord Elgin II

⚠️ Events

Plague in Bombay
Famine and Lyall Commission
Munda Uprising (1899)
Santhal uprising continuation (1899)
Assassination of British officers by Chapekar Brothers (1897)

👤 Lord Curzon (1899–1905)

Lord Curzon

🏛️ Administrative Reforms

Police Commission (1902)
Universities Commission (1902)
Indian Universities Act (1904)
Department of Commerce and Industry created

📚 Cultural & Scientific Work

Archaeological Survey of India strengthened
Ancient Monuments Protection Act (1904)

💰 Economic Reforms

Indian Coinage & Paper Currency Act (1899)
Gold standard introduced

⚔️ Political Events

Partition of Bengal (1905)
Swadeshi Movement begins
North-West Frontier Province created
PUSA Agricultural Institute (1903)

👤 Lord Minto II (1905–1910)

Lord Minto II

📜 Major Events

Swadeshi Movement continues
Surat Split (1907)
- Moderates vs Extremists
Indian Councils Act (1909) → Morley-Minto Reforms
Muslim League founded (1906)
Newspapers Act (1908)

👤 Lord Hardinge II (1910–1916)

Lord Hardinge II

🏛️ Major Events

Partition of Bengal annulled (1911)
Capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi (1911)
Delhi Durbar (1911) – King George V
Bihar & Orissa separated from Bengal (1912)
Hindu Mahasabha founded (1915)
Gandhi returned to India (1915)

👤 Lord Chelmsford (1916–1921)

Lord Chelmsford

⚖️ Major Acts & Movements

Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919)
Rowlatt Act (1919)
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919)
Hunter Commission appointed
Home Rule Movement (Tilak & Annie Besant)
Khilafat Movement begins
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920)

📌 Other Events

Saddler Commission (1917) – education reforms
Prince of Wales visit (1921)
Death of Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1920)

📌 Quick Revision Trick

Dufferin → INC + Burma annexation
Lansdowne → Acts + Durand Line
Elgin II → Plague + unrest
Curzon → Partition of Bengal + reforms
Minto II → Muslim League + Morley-Minto
Hardinge II → Capital shift + annulment of Bengal partition
Chelmsford → Jallianwala + Rowlatt + NCM

🧠 One-Line Memory Aid

Dufferin → Congress birth
Curzon → Bengal partition
Minto II → Muslim League
Hardinge II → Delhi capital
Chelmsford → national movement begins

{ffiffi GENERAL INOWLEDGE – Indian History ‘ Poona Pact u’as sisned’ Lord Reading (1921-1926) . Rowlatt Acr. wls .”p,r”a”,ine raat h Press ” il;”1[Xi:;33,t#TiiX’J;::f[: Act of 1910. Holding of slmultaneous examination for ‘ ‘ Sind was ‘created (1936), Burma separated from India as well in 1935. the ICS in England and India from 1923 ” ai t.rdiu Kisan Sabha, 1936. Prince of\\rales visited India in November, . Foundation ofCongress Socialist party, 1921. . Moplah Rebellion ( 192 I) took place in Kerara 1934. Lord Linlithgow (7934-44) Chauri-Chauraincidentandwithdra.lvalof . First General Election (1936-37) Non-Coperation N{ovement. . Congress l\Iinistries’ Formation of srvaraj Party by cR Das and – sc Bose president of51st INC (1938). NIotilal Nehru (i923) ” Forward Ploc founded in 1939′ * communist Party of India founded by MN ” Deliverance day by Muslim League Roy (1925). . KakoriTrainConspiracv(1925). 1939. . Lahore Resolution ofMuslim League * \’ishwabharati Universlty (1922). o Lee Commission (1924) for public ‘ August offer’ 1940′ (1940) demand of Pakistan’ currency notes (1926). . RSS founded in 1e25 ,”- -. sen.ices. young Hilton iommittee for ” “D-ivide & Quit” at the Karachi session (1940) Passing of Quit India ‘RoyalCommissiononagriculture.resolution(1942). ‘ o Murder of swami shraddhanand Lord Irwin (rgze-rg3r) H”T#’.%ffi:ii:,::::;)”;”:::**’ cripps Missio n, 1942′ ” Quit rndia Movement, 1942. , Simon commission visited India in 1928. ” In 1943, Muslim League celebrated Buttler Commission in 1927. * Deepawali declaration b1′ Lord . I.fr, (1e29). . AI1 India Youth Congress, 1928. . Nehru Report, 1928. ‘ ‘Pakistan day” LOrd Wavell (7943-47) ‘ CB Formula (Raiaii Formula)’ 1944′ PIan and shimla conference’ 161:”u Lahore session of the congress, (1929) . cabinet Mission came to In&a in May, rnd Puorna Swalaj declat’ation. ‘ i,a6. ft ” Congress and the Muslim First Round Table Conference 1930, leaguebothrejecteditsproposals. Congress boycotted it. . Muslim League celebrated l6th- Cir{I Disobedience Nlovement, 1930 August, 1946 as ‘Direct Action Day’. started with. . Dandi March (12th March, 1930) ” Gandhi-Irwin pr”t, str, ri”-i,”i6sr. . INA trials and the Naval Mutiny, 1946. Lord Mountbatten * Sharda Act, 1929, under which ” Junethirdplan’ r..irg””ft” age of girls (i4 years) and . LastBritishviceroyof Britishlndia. boys (i8 years)”was raised. ‘ First Governor-General offree India. . Jawaharlal Nehru and subhash chandra . BoundarycommissionsunderRadcliffe. Bose founded Independence of India ‘ Introduction of Indian Independence League. Lord Wellington (1931-1936) C Rajagopalachari Bill in the House of Commons’ .SecondandThirdRoundTable.I,astGovernor{ieneralofFleelndia. Conferences..Theonlylndian.Governor.Generalto Communal Award by Mcdonald (British remain in offrce from 2lst June’ 1948 PM). Governme”t ot-r”aii-lci, rsss’ to 25th January 1950

🇮🇳 Indian National Movement (1921–1950)

👤 Lord Reading (1921–1926)

Lord Reading

⚖️ Major Events

Moplah Rebellion (1921) in Kerala
Prince of Wales visited India (1921)
Repression of revolutionary activities

📌 Important Developments

Holding of simultaneous ICS exams in India & England (from 1923)
Rowlatt Act protest continued impact

👤 Lord Irwin (1926–1931)

Lord Irwin

⚔️ National Movement Events

Simon Commission (1928) → boycott
Nehru Report (1928)
Lahore Session (1929) → Purna Swaraj declared

🚩 Civil Disobedience Movement

Started in 1930
Dandi March (1930) by Gandhi
Gandhi–Irwin Pact (1931)

📜 Laws

Sarda Act (1929):
- Girls marriage age → 14
- Boys → 18

🤝 Round Table Conference

First Round Table Conference (1930) → Congress boycott

👤 Lord Willingdon (1931–1936)

Lord Willingdon

⚖️ Repression Era

Civil Disobedience Movement suppressed
Communal Award (1932) by Ramsay MacDonald
Poona Pact signed (1932)

📌 Political Developments

Formation of Congress Socialist Party (1934)
Communist Party of India (1925) influence grows
Separate electorates strengthened

👤 Lord Linlithgow (1936–1944)

Lord Linlithgow

🗳️ Elections & Politics

First Provincial Elections (1936–37)
Congress ministries formed
Subhas Chandra Bose elected Congress President (1938)

⚔️ World War II Period

India dragged into WWII without consultation (1939)
Congress ministries resigned

🚩 Movements

Quit India Movement (1942)
August Offer (1940)
Cripps Mission (1942) failed

📌 Other Events

Forward Bloc founded (1939)
Muslim League observed “Deliverance Day” (1939)

👤 Lord Wavell (1943–1947)

Lord Wavell

🏛️ Political Attempts

Wavell Plan (1945)
Shimla Conference (1945) failed
Cabinet Mission (1946)

⚔️ National Events

INA Trials (1945–46)
Royal Indian Navy Mutiny (1946)
Direct Action Day (1946) by Muslim League

👤 Lord Mountbatten (1947–1948)

Lord Mountbatten

🇮🇳 Partition & Independence

June 3 Plan (1947)
Partition of India
Radcliffe Boundary Commission
Indian Independence Act (1947)

📌 Role

Last Viceroy of British India
First Governor-General of Independent India

👤 C. Rajagopalachari (1948–1950)

Rajagopalachari

First Indian Governor-General
Served till Republic Day (1950)
Only Indian to hold this post

📌 Quick Revision Trick

Reading → Moplah + Prince visit
Irwin → Dandi March + Gandhi-Irwin Pact
Willingdon → Poona Pact + repression
Linlithgow → WWII + Quit India
Wavell → Cabinet Mission + INA
Mountbatten → Partition
Rajagopalachari → First Indian GG

🧠 One-Line Memory Aid

Irwin → Salt Satyagraha
Linlithgow → Quit India Movement
Wavell → failure of talks + INA trials
Mountbatten → Partition of India
Rajaji → Republic transition

🎓 Growth of Modern Education in India

🟢 First Phase (1758–1812)

🏛️ Nature

British East India Company initially not interested in education
Few isolated efforts by individuals

📚 Important Institutions

🕌 Calcutta Madrasa (1781)

Calcutta Madrasa

Founded by Warren Hastings
Focus: Islamic law and Arabic/Persian studies

🏛️ Sanskrit College (1791)

Sanskrit College, Varanasi

Founded by Jonathan Duncan
Focus: Hindu law, Sanskrit, philosophy

🎓 Fort William College (1800)

Fort William College

Founded by Lord Wellesley
Training of British civil servants
Indian languages + administration training
Closed in 1802 (later revived in form)

🟡 Second Phase (1813–1853)

📜 Charter Act of 1813

First time British government allocated ₹1 lakh for education
Allowed Christian missionaries in India
Marked beginning of state responsibility in education

📚 Key Developments

🎓 Calcutta College (1817)

Hindu College, Kolkata

Promoted Western education
Supported by Raja Ram Mohan Roy

⚔️ Orientalist vs Anglicist Debate

Conflict over:
- Indian traditional education vs Western education
- Sanskrit/Arabic vs English medium

📌 Macaulay’s Education Policy (1835)

Thomas Babington Macaulay

Promoted English education
Western knowledge prioritized
Lord William Bentinck approved policy

🏛️ Other Developments

English education expanded for jobs (1844 policy by Lord Hardinge I)
Bethune School (1849) → education for women

🔵 Third Phase (1854–1900)

📜 Wood’s Despatch (1854)

Wood’s Despatch

⭐ Known as:

“Magna Carta of Indian Education”

🏛️ Key Recommendations

📚 System of Education

Western education for higher studies
Vernacular schools for primary education

💰 Grants-in-Aid System

Support for private schools

🏢 Administrative Structure

Department of Public Instruction in provinces

🎓 Universities (1857)

Calcutta University
Bombay University
Madras University

👩‍🏫 Other Reforms

Teacher training institutes
Women education encouraged

📌 Impact of Wood’s Despatch

Strong expansion of Western education
Foundation of modern Indian education system
Growth of educated middle class

🧠 Quick Revision Trick

Hastings → Madrasa
Duncan → Sanskrit College
Wellesley → Fort William College
1813 → Education fund starts
Macaulay → English education
Wood → Modern education system

📌 One-Line Memory Aid

Phase 1 → Institutions
Phase 2 → Policy shift (English vs Indian debate)
Phase 3 → Systematic modern education

📚 GROWTH OF MODERN EDUCATION IN INDIA

🟡 1st Phase (1758–1812)

East India Company showed very little interest in education.
Early institutions:
- Calcutta Madrasa (1781) – by Warren Hastings
- Sanskrit College, Banaras (1791) – by Jonathan Duncan
- Fort William College (1800) – by Lord Wellesley (training civil servants)

🟡 2nd Phase (1813–1854)

Charter Act of 1813: ₹1 lakh for education (first state responsibility)
Christian missionaries allowed to work in India
Key developments:
- Calcutta College (1817) – Raja Rammohan Roy influence
- General Committee of Public Instruction (1823)
🎯 Macaulay’s Minute (1835):
- Promoted English education
- Western learning over traditional Indian education
1844: English education became preferred for government jobs
Bethune School (1849) – women’s education

🟡 3rd Phase (1854–1900)

Wood’s Despatch (1854) ⭐ “Magna Carta of Indian Education”

English for higher education
Vernacular for primary education
Grants-in-aid system
Education departments in provinces
Universities:
- Calcutta (1857)
- Bombay (1857)
- Madras (1857)
Teacher training + women education promoted

Hunter Commission (1882)

William Wilson Hunter

Focus on primary & secondary education
Encouraged private sector participation
Female education promoted

🟡 4th Phase (1900–1920)

Curzon’s University Commission (1902)
Indian Universities Act (1904)
More government control over universities

🟡 Sergeant Plan (1944)

John Sergeant

Free & compulsory education (ages 6–11)
Secondary education (11–17)
Planned modern education system (reconstruction in 40 years, later reduced)

🧠 SOCIAL & CULTURAL REFORM MOVEMENTS

🔵 Brahmo Samaj

Founded by Raja Rammohan Roy (1830)

Key ideas:

Monotheism (one God)
Against idol worship
Social reforms:
- Opposed Sati
- Supported women’s rights
Journals:
- Sambad Kaumudi
- Precepts of Jesus

Later leaders:

Debendranath Tagore
Keshab Chandra Sen

🔵 Prarthana Samaj

Founded by Mahadev Govind Ranade

Focus: social reform, widow remarriage, education

🔵 Arya Samaj

Founded by Dayanand Saraswati (1875)

Key ideas:

“Go back to the Vedas”
Vedas are ultimate truth
Opposed caste discrimination, idol worship
Promoted education and nationalism

🎯 QUICK REVISION POINTS

Macaulay (1835) → English education dominance
Wood’s Despatch (1854) → modern education system foundation
Hunter Commission (1882) → primary education focus
Sergeant Plan (1944) → modern school structure
Raja Rammohan Roy → father of modern Indian renaissance
Dayanand Saraswati → Vedic revival + nationalism

🔵 Paramhansa Mandali (1849)

Founders: Dadoba Pandurang & Bal Shastri Jambhekar
Belief:
- One God
Reforms:
- Widow remarriage
- Women education
- Inter-dining between castes

🔵 Veda Samaj

South Indian reform movement
Founder: Sridharalu Naidu
Known as “Brahmo Samaj of the South”
Focus: social reform + monotheism

🔵 Young Bengal Movement

Founder: Henry Louis Vivian Derozio
Radical students of Bengal
Ideas:
- Free thinking
- Rationalism
- Anti-orthodoxy
- Social equality

🎯 QUICK REVISION POINTS

Arya Samaj → Vedas + social reform + nationalism
Brahmo Samaj → monotheism + modern rational thinking
Ramakrishna Mission → religious unity + service
Prarthana Samaj → Maharashtra reform movement
Young Bengal → radical free thinking movement
Dharma Sabha → orthodox response to reforms

🌿 SOCIAL & CULTURAL REFORM ASSOCIATIONS

🔵 Seva Sadan

Founded by Behramji Malabari (1885, Bombay)

⭐ Work

Campaign against child marriage
Helped widows and destitute women
Focus on women welfare and social care

🔵 Indian National Social Conference

Founded by M. G. Ranade & Raghunath Rao (1887, Bombay)

⭐ Aim

Social reforms within Hindu society
Abolition of:
- Child marriage
- Polygamy
- Caste discrimination
Promotion of intercaste marriage

🔵 Indian Reform Association

Founded by Keshab Chandra Sen (1870, Calcutta)

⭐ Aim

Public awareness on social reforms
Opposed child marriage
Promoted legal reforms and education

🔵 Theosophical Society

Founded by Helena Blavatsky & Henry Steel Olcott (1875, USA)

⭐ India Branch

HQ shifted to Adyar (Chennai)

⭐ Beliefs

Revival of ancient Indian religions
Karma, Upanishads, Vedanta
Hinduism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism influence

🔵 Deccan Education Society

Founded by M. G. Ranade, V. G. Chiplunkar & G. G. Agarkar (1884, Pune)

⭐ Aim

Spread education in Western India
Promote nationalism through education
Founded Ferguson College (Pune)

🔵 Poona Seva Sadan

Founded by G. K. Devadhar & Ramabai Ranade (1909)

⭐ Aim

Women empowerment
Employment for women
Social and economic upliftment

🔵 Niskam Karma Math

Founded by Dhondo Keshav Karve (Pune)

⭐ Aim

Selfless service (Niskam Karma)
Women education
Social reform and upliftment

🔵 Bharata Stri Mandal

Founded by Sarala Devi Chaudhurani (1910, Calcutta)

⭐ Importance

First all-India women’s organization
Focus on women rights and education

🔵 Swaminarayan Sampradaya

Founded by Swaminarayan (Gujarat)

⭐ Beliefs

Vaishnavism-based reform movement
Opposed social evils and luxury practices
Promoted moral living and devotion

🔵 Namdhari / Kuka Movement

Founded by Ram Singh Kuka (Punjab)

⭐ Features

Anti-British sentiment
Social reforms in Sikh society
Rejected caste discrimination and rituals

🔵 Servants of India Society

Founded by Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1905)

⭐ Aim

Public service and national welfare
Famine relief
Tribal upliftment
Education and social reform

🔵 Madras Hindu Association

Founded by Viresalingam Pantulu (1892)

⭐ Focus

Women’s rights
Opposition to devadasi system
Social reform in South India

🔵 Bharat Dharma Mahamandala

Founded by Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya (1929, Varanasi)

⭐ Aim

Promote orthodox Hindu traditions
Cultural preservation

🔵 Poona Seva Sadan / Women Reform Movement

Focus: women education, employment, upliftment
Key leaders: Ramabai Ranade, GK Devadhar

🎯 QUICK REVISION POINTS

Seva Sadan → women welfare + child marriage reform
Social Conference → Hindu social reform platform
Theosophical Society → revival of ancient Indian religions
Deccan Education Society → education + nationalism
Servants of India Society → public service movement
Bharata Stri Mandal → first all-India women organization

🌿 SOCIAL & RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS (MODERN INDIA)

🔵 Seva Samiti (1914)

Founded by Hridayanath Kunzru (Allahabad)

⭐ Aim:

Social reform and national service
Reform of criminals and “fallen” people
Education and rehabilitation work

🔵 Lokahitawadi

Founded by Gopal Hari Deshmukh

⭐ Ideas:

Social reform through education
Criticised blind traditions
Supported modernization of Indian society

🔵 Indian Women’s Association (1917)

Founded by Annie Besant (Madras)

⭐ Aim:

Women’s upliftment
Education and social reform for women

🔵 Rahanumai Mazdayasan Sabha (1830s)

Parsee socio-religious reform movement
Leaders:
- Naoroji Furdunji
- Dadabhai Naoroji
- SS Bengalee

⭐ Aim:

Reform Zoroastrian religion
Promote Western education
Social upliftment of Parsis

🔵 Radha Soami Movement (1861)

Founded by Tulsi Ram (Shiv Dayal Singh / Soami Maharaj)

⭐ Beliefs:

One Supreme God
Importance of Guru
Simple and moral life

🔵 Deva Samaj (1887)

Founded by Shiv Narayan Agnihotri

⭐ Focus:

Moral and ethical living
Social reform
Humanitarian values

🔵 Khudai Khidmatgar Movement (1929)

Founded by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan

⭐ Features:

Non-violent movement
Social reform in NWFP
Inspired by Gandhian philosophy

🌿 CASTE & SOCIAL REFORM MOVEMENTS

🔵 Satya Shodhak Samaj (1873)

Founded by Jyotirao Phule

⭐ Aim:

Fight Brahmanical domination
Education for lower castes
Social equality

🔵 SNDP Movement (1902)

Founded by Sree Narayana Guru

⭐ Aim:

“One caste, one religion, one God”
Temple entry rights for lower castes
Social equality in Kerala

🔵 Bahujan Samaj (1910)

Leader: Mukundrao Patil (Maharashtra)

⭐ Aim:

Opposed caste exploitation
Upliftment of lower castes

🔵 Self Respect Movement

Founded by Periyar E. V. Ramasamy (Madras)

⭐ Features:

Anti-Brahmin movement
Opposed caste system
Promoted rationalism
Supported widow remarriage & inter-caste marriage

🔵 Harijan Sevak Sangh (1932)

Founded by Mahatma Gandhi

⭐ Aim:

Uplift “untouchables”
Social equality
End untouchability

🔵 Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK precursor movement ideas)

Related leader:
C. N. Annadurai

⭐ Aim:

Dravidian identity
Anti-caste ideology
Social justice

🎯 QUICK REVISION POINTS

Seva Samiti → social service + rehabilitation
Lokahitwadi → social reform through education
SNDP → Kerala caste reform + temple entry
Satya Shodhak → anti-Brahmin movement
Self Respect → rationalism + anti-caste ideology
Harijan Sevak Sangh → Gandhi’s untouchability removal mission
Khudai Khidmatgar → non-violence movement in NWFP

🌿 TRIBAL MOVEMENTS IN INDIA

🔴 Major Tribal Revolts (Overview)

Movement	Area	Leaders	Key Idea
Chuar Uprising	Bengal	Local tribes	Resistance against revenue exploitation
Kol Uprising	Bihar–Jharkhand	Tribal leaders	Against British oppression
Bhil Uprising	Gujarat–Madhya Pradesh	Govind Guru (later phase)	Tribal rights & land issues
Rampa Rebellion	Andhra Pradesh	Alluri Sitarama Raju	Anti-British guerrilla struggle
Khasi Rising	Assam	Tribal chiefs	Against British interference
Kuki Rising	Manipur	Rani Gaidinliu	Resistance to colonial rule
Ho Rising	Singhbhum (Jharkhand)	Tribal leaders	Against British policies
Singpho Rising	Assam	Tribal groups	Anti-colonial resistance
Munda Revolt	Chotanagpur	Birsa Munda	Ulgulan movement (tribal independence)
Khond Rising	Odisha	Chakrabisai	Against British rule
Oraon Revolt	Jharkhand	Jatra Bhagat	Social + religious reform
Naikada Revolt	Gujarat	Roop Singh	Anti-British uprising

🔴 Key Important Tribal Revolts

🔥 Munda Revolt (Ulgulan)

Leader: Birsa Munda
Region: Chotanagpur
Aim:
- End British land system
- Tribal self-rule
- Religious revival

🔥 Rampa Rebellion

Leader: Alluri Sitarama Raju
Area: Andhra Pradesh
Features:
- Guerrilla warfare
- Anti-British movement
- Inspired by Gandhian ideas (but used violence)

🔥 Kuki Rising

Leader: Rani Gaidinliu
Area: Manipur
Features:
- Resistance against British rule
- Tribal religious revival movement

🌙 MUSLIM SOCIO-RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS

🔵 Faraizi Movement (1804)

Founded by Haji Shariatullah

⭐ Aim:

Purify Islam
Remove un-Islamic customs
Religious reform in Bengal

🔵 Deoband Movement (1867)

Founded by:

Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi
Rashid Ahmad Gangohi

⭐ Aim:

Islamic education
Opposed British influence
Preserved orthodox Islam

🔵 Aligarh Movement (1875)

Founded by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

⭐ Aim:

Modern education for Muslims
Scientific and Western learning
Loyalty to British (initial phase)

⭐ Institutions:

Aligarh School → later Aligarh Muslim University

🔵 Ahmadiyya Movement (1889–90)

Founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad

⭐ Beliefs:

Universal religion
Peaceful interpretation of Islam
Against religious extremism

🔵 Ahrar Movement

Leaders:

Riza Khan
Ali Brothers

⭐ Aim:

Opposed Aligarh Movement
Supported traditional Islamic values

🎯 QUICK REVISION POINTS

🌿 Tribal Movements

Birsa Munda → Ulgulan (Jharkhand)
Alluri Sitarama Raju → Rampa rebellion (Andhra)
Rani Gaidinliu → Naga resistance
Tribal revolts → land + forest + exploitation issues

🌙 Muslim Reform Movements

Faraizi → Islamic purification
Deoband → orthodox Islamic education
Aligarh → modern education + reform
Ahmadiyya → universal religion idea

🇮🇳 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE – INDIAN HISTORY

✨ THE INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT

🟦 THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS (INC)

📌 Formation

The idea of a national organisation was promoted by A.O. Hume (Allan Octavian Hume).
Indian National Union (1884) was formed by A.O. Hume.
It merged with earlier efforts to form the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885.

📌 First Session

📍 Venue: Bombay (Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College)
📅 Date: 28 December 1885
👤 President: W.C. Bonnerjee (Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee)
👥 Delegates: 72

📌 Importance

First organised expression of All India nationalism
Created a national political platform
Later became the main body of the freedom struggle

🧠 QUICK FACTS (INC)

First President: W.C. Bonnerjee
First Muslim President: Badruddin Tyabji
First Woman President: Annie Besant (1917)
First English President: George Yule
1924 President (Belgaum): Mahatma Gandhi
1929 Lahore Session President: Jawaharlal Nehru
1938 Haripura President: Subhas Chandra Bose

🟨 PHASES OF INC

🟢 Moderate Phase (1885–1905)

📌 Objectives

National unity (irrespective of religion, caste, province)
Constitutional reforms
Gradual political awareness

📌 Methods

Petitions
Prayer and persuasion
Peaceful protests
Appeals to British justice

📌 Achievements

Indian Councils Act, 1892
Expansion of legislative councils (limited Indian participation)

📌 Moderate Leaders

Dadabhai Naoroji
Gopal Krishna Gokhale
W.C. Bonnerjee
Pherozeshah Mehta
M.G. Ranade
Badruddin Tyabji
R.C. Dutt
Surendranath Banerjee
Annie Besant (later phase)

🔴 Extremist Phase (1905–1917)

📌 Causes of Rise

Failure of Moderates to achieve major reforms
Economic exploitation under British rule
Partition of Bengal (1905)
Curzon’s repressive policies:
- Indian Universities Act (1904)
- Official Secrets Act (1904)
Rise of nationalist consciousness
Boer War (1899–1902) exposed British weakness

📌 Ideology

“Swaraj” became the central goal
Belief in mass struggle instead of petitions
Promotion of boycott, swadeshi, and national education

📌 Extremist Leaders

Bal Gangadhar Tilak
Bipin Chandra Pal
Lala Lajpat Rai
Aurobindo Ghosh

🇮🇳 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE – INDIAN HISTORY

🔥 SWADESHI MOVEMENT & PARTITION OF BENGAL

🟦 PARTITION OF BENGAL (1905)

📌 Background

Announced by Lord Curzon
Implemented on 16 October 1905
Bengal was divided into:
- East Bengal & Assam (Muslim majority)
- West Bengal (Hindu majority)

📌 British Justification

Bengal was too large to administer efficiently
But actual aim was Divide and Rule policy

📌 Indian Reaction

Strong opposition from all sections:
- Zamindars
- Lawyers
- Students
- Merchants
- Women

📌 Anti-Partition Movement

Started on 7 August 1905
Massive protest in Calcutta (Town Hall meeting)
Boycott of British goods began

📌 Important INC Role

1905 Banaras Session (presided by G.K. Gokhale)

→ First official call for Swadeshi movement
Resolution of Boycott of British goods passed in Calcutta session

🟨 SWADESHI MOVEMENT

📌 Origin

Started as a reaction to Partition of Bengal
Promoted:
- Swadeshi (use of Indian goods)
- Boycott of British goods

📌 Methods Used

Boycott of foreign cloth & goods
Picketing of shops
Burning of foreign goods
Promotion of Indian industries
National education institutions

📌 Self-Reliance (Atmashakti)

Focus on:
- Indigenous production
- National education
- Cultural revival

📌 Cultural Impact

Growth of nationalist literature, poetry, journalism
Strengthening of national consciousness

📌 Important Leaders

Bal Gangadhar Tilak
Bipin Chandra Pal
Lala Lajpat Rai
Aurobindo Ghosh
Chidambaram Pillai
Chittaranjan Das

📌 Regional Leaders

Bengal → Bipin Chandra Pal
Punjab → Lala Lajpat Rai & Ajit Singh
Madras → Chidambaram Pillai (Vande Mataram movement)

❌ REASONS FOR FAILURE

Strong British repression
Lack of proper organisation
Split in Congress at Surat (1907)
Leadership issues after suppression

🟦 FORMATION OF MUSLIM LEAGUE (1906)

📌 Founded at:

Dhaka (1906)

📌 Leaders:

Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka
Aga Khan
Mohsin-ul-Mulk

📌 Objectives

Protect Muslim political interests
Demand separate electorate
Opposed Swadeshi Movement initially
Supported British policies in some areas

🇮🇳 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE – INDIAN HISTORY

🔥 INC SPLIT, MORLEY–MINTO REFORMS & REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT

🟦 CALCUTTA SESSION OF INC (1906)

📌 President

Dadabhai Naoroji

📌 Key Declaration

First time INC officially declared:
- ⭐ Swaraj = Self-Government (like Britain)
- Became the main goal of Indian national movement

🟥 SURAT SPLIT (1907)

📌 Background

Internal conflict in INC between:
- Moderates
- Extremists

📌 Split at Surat Session (1907)

🟢 Moderates

Leader: G.K. Gokhale
Believed in:
- Constitutional methods
- Petitions and reforms
- Gradual progress
- Protection of civil rights

🔴 Extremists

Leaders:
- Bal Gangadhar Tilak
- Lala Lajpat Rai
- Bipin Chandra Pal (Lal-Bal-Pal)
Beliefs:
- British rule is exploitative
- Swaraj is necessary
- Use of mass struggle

📌 Extremist Groups

Maharashtra → Tilak
Bengal → Bipin Chandra Pal, Aurobindo Ghosh
Punjab → Lala Lajpat Rai

🟨 MORLEY–MINTO REFORMS (1909)

📌 Features

First step toward electoral politics in India
Increased elected members in councils
Introduced separate electorate for Muslims
Indians allowed indirect elections
Budget discussion rights given

📌 Indian Member

Satyendra Prasad Sinha → first Indian in Viceroy’s Executive Council

📌 Important Outcome

Encouraged communal representation → increased divide between communities

🟦 ANNULMENT OF PARTITION OF BENGAL (1911)

📌 Event

British reversed Bengal Partition (1905)
Bengal reunited

📌 Reason

Strong nationalist agitation (Swadeshi Movement pressure)

🔴 GHADAR PARTY (1913)

📌 Founders

Lala Hardayal
Sohan Singh Bhakna
Taraknath Das

📌 Headquarters

San Francisco (USA)

📌 Newspaper

“The Ghadar”
Motto: “Angrezi Raj ka Dushman”

📌 Members

Mainly Punjabi Sikh immigrants (farmers & ex-soldiers)

📌 Aim

Armed revolution to overthrow British rule in India

📌 World War I Opportunity

Planned return to India for uprising
But plan leaked → arrested, hanged, or imprisoned

📌 Important Leaders

Kartar Singh Sarabha
Baba Gurumukh Singh
Rahmat Ali Shah
Bhai Paramanand
Barkatullah

🚢 KOMAGATA MARU INCIDENT (1914)

📌 What Happened

Ship carried Indian immigrants (Sikhs & Muslims) from Canada
Canada refused entry → forced return to India
Ship reached Budge Budge (Calcutta)

📌 Outcome

British considered passengers as revolutionaries
Police firing → 15 Indians killed
Baba Gurdit Singh was targeted

🇮🇳 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE – INDIAN HISTORY

🔥 HOME RULE MOVEMENT, LUCKNOW PACT & ROWLATT ACT

🟦 HOME RULE MOVEMENT (1916)

📌 Background

Started after:
- Return of Bal Gangadhar Tilak (after 6 years imprisonment)
- Disillusionment with Morley–Minto Reforms (1909)
- Wartime hardships in India

🟥 TILAK’S HOME RULE LEAGUE

📌 Started

April 1916, Poona

📌 Area Covered

Maharashtra
Karnataka
Central Provinces
Berar
Bombay Presidency

📌 Slogan

⭐ “Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it”

📌 Publications

Kesari
Maratha

🟦 ANNIE BESANT’S HOME RULE LEAGUE

📌 Started

September 1916 (Adyar)

📌 Coverage

Rest of India (outside Tilak’s area)

📌 Newspapers

New India
Commonwealth
Young India

📌 Key Leaders

Annie Besant
Subramania Iyer
George Arundale

📌 Importance of Movement

Increased political awareness
United Moderates and Extremists indirectly
Strengthened demand for self-rule

🟨 LUCKNOW SESSION OF INC (1916)

📌 President

Ambika Charan Majumdar

📌 Key Development

🔥 Reunion of Moderates + Extremists
🔥 Congress + Muslim League agreement

📌 LUCKNOW PACT (1916)

📌 Between

Indian National Congress
Muslim League

📌 Features

Accepted separate electorates for Muslims
Demand for self-government (Dominion Status)
Joint political pressure on British

🟦 MONTAGU DECLARATION (1917)

📌 Also called

August Declaration

📌 Announcement

British promised:
- Gradual introduction of responsible government in India
- Increasing participation of Indians in administration

📌 Importance

Basis of:
- ⭐ Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms (1919)

🟥 ROWLATT ACT (1919)

📌 Background

Based on Rowlatt Committee (Justice Rowlatt)

📌 Features

Arrest without trial for up to 2 years
Suspension of Habeas Corpus
No judicial appeal in many cases
Suppression of civil liberties

📌 Impact

Widespread protests, hartals, strikes
Massive public anger across India
Direct cause of:
- ⭐ Non-Cooperation Movement (1920)

📌 Significance

Called “Black Act” by Indians
Marked beginning of mass national movement phase

🇮🇳 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE – INDIAN HISTORY

🔥 GANDHI’S RETURN, EARLY SATYAGRAHAS, KHILAFAT & NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT

🟦 GANDHI’S RETURN TO INDIA (1915)

Returned from South Africa in January 1915
Inspired by non-violence (Ahimsa) & Satyagraha
Did not immediately join active politics

🟨 EARLY SATYAGRAHAS (1917–1918)

📌 Champaran Satyagraha (1917)

⭐ First Civil Disobedience movement of Gandhi
Issue: Indigo farmers forced under Tinkathia system
Result: End of exploitation of indigo peasants

📌 Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)

First hunger strike by Gandhi
Issue: Dispute between mill workers and owners
Result: Wage increase agreement

📌 Kheda Satyagraha (1918)

⭐ First Non-Cooperation-type movement
Cause: Crop failure → peasants demanded tax relief
Method: Refusal to pay land revenue

🟥 JALLIANWALA BAGH MASSACRE (1919)

📌 Background

Protest against Rowlatt Act
Arrest of leaders: Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew & Dr. Satyapal

📌 Incident

Date: 13 April 1919
Place: Amritsar
General Dyer ordered firing on unarmed crowd
Exit blocked → massacre

📌 Impact

Nationwide outrage
Strengthened freedom movement

📌 Aftermath

Hunter Commission appointed
Udham Singh assassinated Michael O’Dwyer (1940, London)

🟦 KHILAFAT MOVEMENT (1919–1924)

📌 Background

Turkey (Ottoman Empire) defeated in WWI
Khalifa (Caliph) removed → anger among Indian Muslims

📌 Leaders

Ali Brothers (Shaukat Ali & Mohammad Ali)
Maulana Azad
Hakim Ajmal Khan
Hasrat Mohani

📌 Objective

Restore position of Khalifa in Turkey

📌 Gandhi’s Role

Supported to promote Hindu–Muslim unity
Linked Khilafat with national movement

📌 Programmes

Boycott of British titles
Boycott of government jobs
Non-cooperation with British administration

🟥 NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT (1920–1922)

📌 Background Causes

Rowlatt Act (1919)
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
Khilafat Movement
Economic hardship after WWI

📌 Approval

Approved at Nagpur Session (1920) of INC

📌 Objectives

Refusal to cooperate with British government
Peaceful mass movement under Gandhi

📌 Methods

Boycott of:
- Schools & colleges
- Courts
- Foreign goods
- Government jobs
Promotion of:
- Charkha (spinning wheel)
- Swadeshi goods

📌 Significance

First mass national movement in India
Involved common people in freedom struggle

🇮🇳 INDIAN HISTORY – QUICK REVISED NOTES

🔥 1. Revolt of 1857

Started as the First major uprising against British rule
Key leaders: Rani Lakshmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tatya Tope, Begum Hazrat Mahal
Important events:
- Jhansi captured (1858) by Hugh Rose
- Lucknow recaptured (1858) by Colin Campbell
Causes of failure:
- Lack of unity
- Poor coordination
- Inferior weapons
Impact:
- Rule of East India Company ended
- British Crown took control (1858)
- Post of Viceroy created

👑 2. Governor-Generals & Viceroys (Important Highlights)

Warren Hastings (1772–1785)

First Governor-General of Bengal
Dual system abolished
Supreme Court (Calcutta)
Asiatic Society founded (1784)
First Anglo-Maratha War

Lord Cornwallis (1786–1793)

Permanent Settlement (1793)
Father of Civil Services in India

Lord Wellesley (1798–1805)

Subsidiary Alliance system
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (Tipu Sultan killed)

Lord William Bentinck (1828–1835)

Abolished Sati (1829)
Suppression of Thugs
Modern education promoter

Lord Dalhousie (1848–1856)

Doctrine of Lapse
Railways, Telegraph, Post system
Widows Remarriage Act (1856)

📚 3. Growth of Modern Education

Early Phase

Calcutta Madrasa (1781)
Sanskrit College (1791)
Fort William College (1800)

Macaulay Minute (1835)

English education promoted

Wood’s Dispatch (1854)

Called “Magna Carta of Indian Education”
Universities: Calcutta, Bombay, Madras (1857)

Hunter Commission (1882)

Primary + secondary education reforms

🧠 4. Socio-Religious Reform Movements

Brahmo Samaj

Raja Rammohan Roy
Against idol worship & Sati

Arya Samaj

Swami Dayanand Saraswati
“Back to Vedas”
Against caste system & untouchability

Ramakrishna Mission

Swami Vivekananda
Religious harmony + service to humanity

Prarthana Samaj

MG Ranade
Social reform in Maharashtra

🇮🇳 5. Indian National Congress (INC)

Formation (1885)

Founder: A.O. Hume
First President: W.C. Bonnerjee

Moderate Phase (1885–1905)

Methods: petitions, prayers
Leaders: Gokhale, Naoroji, Ranade

Extremist Phase (1905–1917)

Leaders: Tilak, Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal
Methods: Swadeshi + Boycott

🧨 6. Partition of Bengal (1905)

Lord Curzon
Divide & rule policy
Anti-partition movement began
Swadeshi movement started

🤝 7. Home Rule Movement (1916)

Leaders: Bal Gangadhar Tilak + Annie Besant
Demand: Self-government

⚖️ 8. Rowlatt Act (1919)

Arrest without trial
Led to nationwide protests

💔 9. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919)

General Dyer opened fire in Amritsar
Thousands killed
Turning point in freedom struggle

🧭 10. Gandhian Era

Champaran (1917)

Indigo farmers movement

Kheda (1918)

No tax due to famine

Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)

Labour strike

🚩 11. Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22)

First mass movement under Gandhi
Boycott of British goods, schools, courts
Withdrawn after Chauri Chaura incident (1922)

☪️ 12. Khilafat Movement

Led by Ali Brothers, Maulana Azad
Protest against Ottoman Caliphate removal

⚔️ 13. Revolutionary Movements

Hindustan Republican Association (1924)
HSRA (1928): Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad
Ghadar Party (1913): Lala Hardayal

🏛️ 14. Important Congress Sessions

1885: First session (Bombay)
1906: Swaraj demand (Calcutta)
1916: Lucknow Pact
1929: Lahore Session → Purna Swaraj

GENEIIAL KNOWLEDGE – Indian History advocated that nationallsts should end the boycott of legislative council, “”,”. ,lr”_, ffi . The Narional Congress decidt,d to obstrucl their workingaccording to official plans. expose their weaknesses, transform them into arenas of political struggle and thus use them to arouse pubbc . enthusiasm. They were ,pro-changeis, . Sardar Vallabhbhai patel, Dr Ansari, Babu Rajendra prasad and others opposeJ council entry They were knorn.n’as .no charngers’. . In December, 1922, CR Das and Motilal Nehru formed Congress- Khilafat S.r.r;y, Party, with CR Das as president #J Motilal Nehru as Secretary. It worked ‘ within rhe Congress. In the 1923 elections, the Swaraiists won 42 seats out olthe l0l elecred seats in the Central Legislative Assembly. With the cooperation of orher Indian group. they repeatedly out-voted the government in the Central Assembly and in severat of the provincial councils. ” Swarajists were split by Communalism. I ne responsi\ists offered cooperation to the government to safeguard rhe Hindu mterests. Madan Mohan Malaviva and [.ala Lajpat Rai founded tt ” fnaeplrUuni Congress Party later in 1933. It was recognised as Congress Nationalist party. Simon Commissi on (tg21) ‘ ‘ In 1927, the British Government appointed the Indian Statutorv Commissioo, known popularly by its chalrman Simon to go into the question of fu rther Constiturional Reform. The committee had to review the working of the dyarchy system. introduced bi boycott the commission in its Madras Session in 1g27, presided ou”. bu D. Ansari. . The Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha decided to support the Congress. ” The Commission’s arrival in India led to^a powerful protest. On 3rd February 1928, the CommiSsion was greeteh yth Hartals and black flrg demonstrations, under the ,fog^i Simon Go Back. , The government used brutal suppression and police atracks ro break the popular opposition. . At Lahore. Lala.Lajpat Rai was severely healen in a Larhi charge and he succumbed to his injurics on l Tth November. lg29 Nehru Report (1928) ‘ AII important Indian leaders and parties tried lo meet the chal.lenge of rhe’Simon (‘ommission by getring- together and trying to evolve an alternative scheme of Constltutional Reforms. Nehru repori was tabled in 1928 by Motilal Nehru. . . It remains memorabie as the first major Indian effort to draft a constitutional framework for whole Indla with lists of central and provincial subjects and Fundamental Rights. However, the recommendations evoked a ,debate concerning rhe .goal oi India-Dominion ,trtri or Complete independence. ” Other members of committee_Tej Monrague Cheimsford Reform of l916 and to report to. \ryhat extent ; representative government can be introduced in India. . AII the members of the commission were white. . The Indians protested. against the Simon L’ornmission. because oflhe exclusion ol Indians from the Commission and in the fear that the foreigners would discuss and oeclde upon India’s fitness for self government. B-ahadur Sapru, Ali lmam, MS Anef Mangal Slngh, Sohalb eureshi, Gii Pradhan and SC Bose. Outcome of the Nehru Report * It demanded responsible governmenr borh at the centre and in th6 provinces. But, it advocated dominion status, not complete independence. . ‘ . It demanded Universal Suffrage. It rejected separate communal elect”orate. It proposed Muslim reseryation in the centre and provinces, where they were in minority.

🇮🇳 CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT (1930–34)

🧂 Salt Satyagraha (Dandi March)

Started: 12 March 1930
Led by: Mahatma Gandhi
From: Sabarmati Ashram → Dandi (Gujarat)
Distance: ~375 km
78 followers accompanied Gandhi
Objective: Break Salt Law (monopoly of British)

Why Salt was important?

Essential commodity
British monopoly affected all sections
Symbol of economic exploitation

⚡ Features of Civil Disobedience Movement

Breaking of colonial laws
Refusal to pay taxes
Boycott of foreign goods
Picketing of liquor shops
Non-payment of chaukidari tax
Mass participation including women

👩 Women Participation

Large participation of women
Led picketing and protests
Marked major expansion of mass movement

🌍 Spread of Movement

📍 North-West Frontier Province (NWFP)

Led by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan
Known as “Frontier Gandhi”
Organisation: Khudai Khidmatgar (Red Shirts)
Practised non-violence

📍 Peshawar

Strong participation under Ghaffar Khan
Police repression was severe

📍 Gujarat & Maharashtra

Active salt satyagrahas and tax refusal movements

📍 North-East India

Manipur & Nagaland participation
Rani Gaidinliu became a symbol of resistance
Arrested in 1932, released after independence

📍 South India

C. Rajagopalachari led Salt March from Trichinopoly to Vedaranyam

📍 Eastern India

Strong participation in Bengal and Odisha
Boycott of foreign goods widely followed

⚖️ Government Response

Brutal repression:
- Lathi charge
- Firing on protesters
Arrest of over 90,000 people
Congress declared illegal

🏛️ ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES (1930–32)

🇬🇧 First Round Table Conference (1930)

Held in London
Congress boycotted it
Outcome: Failed discussions

🧭 Important Context

Based on Simon Commission Report
British tried to discuss constitutional reforms without Congress

🤝 Gandhi–Irwin Pact (1931)

Agreement between Gandhi and Lord Irwin
Congress agreed to suspend Civil Disobedience Movement
British agreed to:
- Release political prisoners
- Allow peaceful protest
- Permit salt collection for personal use

📌 Lahore Session (1929 – Background)

President: Jawaharlal Nehru
Declared goal: Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence)
26 January 1930 declared Independence Day

🔥 Key Summary (Very Important for Exams)

🧂 Dandi March → Start of Civil Disobedience Movement
⚖️ Aim → Complete independence (Purna Swaraj)
🚫 British response → repression + arrests
👩 Women → major participation
🏔 NWFP → Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (Red Shirts)
🏛 Round Table Conferences → failure due to Congress boycott
🤝 Gandhi–Irwin Pact → temporary suspension of movement

🇮🇳 ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES & CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE (REVISION NOTES)

🏛️ FIRST ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE (1930)

📅 12 Nov 1930 – London

❌ Key Point

Congress boycotted the conference

👥 Participants

Muslims: Mohammad Ali, Aga Khan, M.A. Jinnah, Fazlul Haq
Hindu Mahasabha: Moonje, Jayakar
Liberals: Tej Bahadur Sapru, C.Y. Chintamani, Srinivasa Sastri
Princes: Hyderabad, Mysore representatives

⚠️ Outcome

No concrete result

🤝 GANDHI–IRWIN PACT (1931)

📅 5 March 1931

📌 Agreement Terms

British Government agreed:

Release political prisoners (non-violent offenders)
Allow salt production for personal use

Congress agreed:

Suspend Civil Disobedience Movement
Participate in Second Round Table Conference

🏛️ KARACHI SESSION (1931)

⭐ Importance

Endorsed Gandhi–Irwin Pact
Resolution on:
- Fundamental Rights
- National Economic Programme

👤 Leaders

Jawaharlal Nehru
Subhash Chandra Bose

⚡ Important Event

Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Rajguru executed just before session

🏛️ SECOND ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE (1931)

📍 Gandhi attended in London

❌ Failure Reason

British refused:
- Immediate Dominion Status
- Full control over defence, finance, foreign affairs

⚖️ COMMUNAL AWARD (1932)

👤 Announced by:

Ramsay MacDonald

📌 Provisions

Separate electorates for:
- Muslims
- Sikhs
- Christians
- Anglo-Indians
- Women
- Depressed classes

⚠️ Gandhi’s Opposition

Opposed separate electorate for Depressed Classes
Considered them part of Hindu society

🪶 POONA PACT (1932)

📅 25 September 1932
Between: Gandhi & B.R. Ambedkar

📌 Key Terms

Depressed classes given 147 seats (instead of separate electorate)
Reserved representation in provincial legislatures
Representation in government services

🧑‍🤝‍🧑 HARIJAN MOVEMENT

📌 Gandhi’s Actions

Coined term “Harijan” (for Depressed Classes)
Started All India Anti-Untouchability League (1932)

⚡ Key Activities

21-day fast (1933) for Harijan cause
Focus on social upliftment, not separate identity

🚶 CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT – END PHASE

📉 Decline

Congress suspended movement in 1933
Official withdrawal in 1934
Gandhi retired from active politics (temporary)

📊 IMPACT OF CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT

🗳️ Political Impact

Congress strong in 1937 elections
Rise of Left-wing parties as alternative

🧠 Leadership Growth

Jawaharlal Nehru emerged as major leader
Subhash Chandra Bose also rose in prominence

🌍 Mass Impact

Wider participation of peasants, women, workers
Strengthened national movement base

📌 QUICK REVISION (VERY IMPORTANT)

🏛️ First RTC → Congress boycott, no result
🤝 Gandhi–Irwin Pact → Temporary truce
⚖️ Poona Pact → Agreement with Ambedkar
🧑 Harijan Movement → Anti-untouchability campaign
🏛️ Second RTC → Failure
📉 Civil Disobedience → Suspended (1934)
🗳️ 1937 → Congress electoral success

🇮🇳 THIRD ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE & GOVT OF INDIA ACT 1935

🏛️ THIRD ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE (1932)

❌ Key Point

Congress did NOT participate

📌 Outcome

Discussions helped in framing:

👉 Government of India Act, 1935

📜 GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1935

⭐ Key Features

🏛️ 1. Federal System

Proposed All India Federation
Included British provinces + princely states

🏛️ 2. Provincial Autonomy

Provinces got more independence
Responsible government in provinces introduced

⚖️ 3. Federal Institutions

Provided for:
- Federal Court
- Federal Bank

❌ 4. Abolitions

Abolished Council of India (1858 Act)

🚫 Congress Reaction

Rejected the Act
Demanded:
- Constituent Assembly
- Adult franchise
- Constitution for free India

🌍 SECOND WORLD WAR & INDIAN POLITICS

⚔️ Start of War (1939)

Viceroy: Lord Linlithgow
Declared India at war without consulting Indian leaders

🧑‍⚖️ Congress Reaction

Congress ministries resigned (1939)

📅 Muslim League Reaction

Observed “Deliverance Day” (22 Dec 1939)

🇬🇧 AUGUST OFFER (1940)

📌 Proposals

Dominion status in future
Constituent body after war
Expansion of Viceroy’s Executive Council
War Advisory Council

❌ Reactions

Congress → Rejected (no promise of independence)
Muslim League → Accepted

🚶 INDIVIDUAL SATYAGRAHA (1940–41)

📌 Reason

Congress rejected August Offer

👤 Leader

First Satyagrahi: Vinoba Bhave

📊 Outcome

Over 2.5 lakh arrests
Limited, symbolic protest (not mass movement)

🇬🇧 CRIPPS MISSION (1942)

👤 Led by

Sir Stafford Cripps

📌 Offer

Self-government after war

❌ Failure Reason

No immediate transfer of power
Congress rejected proposal

🧾 CABINET MISSION (1946)

📌 Key Proposals

🏛️ 1. Dominion Status

India to become Dominion after war

🏛️ 2. Constituent Assembly

Elected from provincial assemblies
Princely states to send nominees

🧑‍⚖️ 3. Princely States

Allowed separate agreements with Britain

⚔️ 4. Defence Control

Britain retained control during war period

⚠️ Important Provision

Provinces could opt out and form separate union

📌 QUICK REVISION POINTS (VERY IMPORTANT)

🏛️ 3rd RTC → Congress boycott
📜 1935 Act → Federal system + provincial autonomy
❌ Congress → rejected 1935 Act
⚔️ WWII → Congress ministries resigned (1939)
📢 August Offer (1940) → rejected by Congress
🚶 Individual Satyagraha → Vinoba Bhave
🇬🇧 Cripps Mission → failed (1942)
🧾 Cabinet Mission → basis for Constituent Assembly

🇮🇳 QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT (1942)

🏛️ Background

All India Congress Committee met at Bombay (8 Aug 1942)
Passed Quit India Resolution
Called for non-violent mass struggle
Gandhi’s slogan: “Do or Die”

🚩 Nature of Movement

Also called Vardha Proposal
Became a leaderless movement after arrests
Aim: Immediate end of British rule

⚖️ Government Repression

Massive arrests of leaders:
- Gandhi → Aga Khan Palace (Pune)
- Nehru → Almora Jail
- Maulana Azad → Bankura Jail
Brutal police action used

🏴 Parallel Governments (Important)

Place	Leader
Satara	Nana Patil
Ballia	Chittu Pandey
Tamluk (Bengal)	Jatiya Sarkar
Bihar	Local parallel setups

🔥 Underground Movement

Jayaprakash Narayan active underground
Aruna Asaf Ali led secret Congress activities
Congress Radio run by Usha Mehta
Ram Manohar Lohia active in Bihar

👥 Participation

Students, women, workers actively participated
Strikes and protests widespread
No major communal clashes

❌ Opposition

Muslim League → did NOT support
Communist Party → did NOT support
Hindu Mahasabha → opposed
C. Rajagopalachari → did not participate

🇵🇰 DEMAND FOR PAKISTAN

📌 Early Idea

1930: Allama Iqbal
- Proposed Muslim state:
  - NWFP
  - Sind
  - Baluchistan
  - Kashmir

🧠 Key Contributors

Chaudhary Rehmat Ali → coined term “Pakistan”
Muhammad Ali Jinnah → demanded separate nation due to Hindu-Muslim fear

🏛️ Lahore Resolution (1940)

Passed by Muslim League
Drafted by Sikandar Hayat Khan
Moved by Fazlul Haq
Seconded by Khaliquzzaman

📌 Main Demand

Separate Muslim homeland → Pakistan idea

⚖️ Karachi Session (1943)

Muslim League slogan: “Divide and Quit”

🧾 QUIT INDIA AFTERMATH

Congress temporarily suppressed
Movement became spontaneous mass uprising
Strengthened demand for independence

🙏 GANDHI FAST (1943)

📅 Details

10 Feb – 7 Mar 1943
Duration: 21 days

📌 Purpose

Protest against violence during Quit India Movement

🧾 RAJAGOPALACHARI FORMULA (1944)

👤 Proposer

C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji)

📌 Proposal

Muslim-majority districts in NW & East to decide by plebiscite
If majority agrees → formation of Pakistan allowed
Negotiated partition idea

📌 QUICK REVISION POINTS

🚩 Quit India Movement → 1942, “Do or Die”
🏛️ Parallel governments → Satara, Ballia, Tamluk
🎙️ Congress Radio → Usha Mehta
❌ League + Communists → did not support Quit India
🇵🇰 Pakistan idea → Iqbal → Jinnah → 1940 Lahore Resolution
🙏 Gandhi fast → 1943 (21 days)
🧾 Rajaji Formula → first official partition proposal (1944)

🇮🇳 Indian National Movement (1939–1947) – Clean Revision Notes

Cripps Mission (1942)

Led by Sir Stafford Cripps.
Offered Dominion Status after WWII.
Provision for Constitution-making body.
Provinces could opt out of Indian Union.
Failed because:
- No immediate independence
- Congress rejected
- Muslim League partially accepted

Quit India Movement (1942)

Launched by Quit India Movement on 8 August 1942.
Motto: “Do or Die”
Leaders arrested; mass protests erupted.
Features:
- Leaderless movement
- Parallel governments (Satara, Ballia, Tamluk)
- Strong participation of students, women, workers

Key leaders:

Mahatma Gandhi
Jawaharlal Nehru
Aruna Asaf Ali
Jayaprakash Narayan

Subhas Chandra Bose & INA

Founded Indian National Army (INA)
Supported by Japan during WWII
Aim: Armed struggle against British

Key figure:

Subhas Chandra Bose
INA = Indian National Army

Events:

Provisional Government formed in 1943 (Azad Hind Government)
INA trials increased nationalist sentiment

Demand for Pakistan

Idea first suggested by Allama Iqbal (1930)
Term “Pakistan” coined by Chaudhary Rahmat Ali
Key leader:
- Muhammad Ali Jinnah

Lahore Resolution (1940)

Separate Muslim state demand
Passed by Muslim League

Cabinet Mission (1946)

Sent by British to transfer power
Proposed:
- Union of India
- Provincial grouping system
- Constituent Assembly

Outcome:

Congress & Muslim League disagreements → failure

Direct Action Day (1946)

Called by Muslim League after Cabinet Mission failure
Led to communal violence in Calcutta and other areas

Leader:

Muhammad Ali Jinnah

Final Phase to Independence (1947)

British decided to transfer power
Partition plan accepted
India & Pakistan created in 1947

Key:

Last Viceroy: Lord Mountbatten
Independence Act 1947 passed

🧠 Quick Exam Tip

Focus on:

Quit India Movement (1942)
INA & Subhas Bose
Cabinet Mission (1946)
Lahore Resolution (1940)
Partition (1947)

🇮🇳 Indian Independence & Partition (1946–1947)

Interim Government (1946)

Formed on 2 September 1946
Headed by Jawaharlal Nehru
Muslim League initially refused to join
Later joined in October 1946 after persuasion

Key facts:

Finance Minister: Liaquat Ali Khan (Muslim League)
Constituent Assembly met on 9 December 1946
First President of Constituent Assembly: Dr. Rajendra Prasad
Muslim League boycotted initial sessions

Attlee’s Statement (20 Feb 1947)

British would transfer power by 30 June 1948
British authority over princely states would end
Viceroy replaced: Lord Mountbatten
Partition was indirectly indicated if unity failed

Mountbatten Plan (3 June 1947)

Announced by Louis Mountbatten

Main features:

Partition of India into India & Pakistan
Transfer of power by 15 August 1947
Separate Constituent Assemblies for both dominions
Punjab & Bengal to be partitioned
Referendum in NWFP and Sylhet
Princely states free to join India or Pakistan

Indian Independence Act (1947)

Passed on 18 July 1947
Created two independent dominions:
- India
- Pakistan

Key provisions:

End of British sovereignty
Each dominion to have Governor-General
Constituent Assemblies empowered to frame Constitution
Government continued under Government of India Act 1935 (temporary)

Independence Day

India became independent on 15 August 1947
Pakistan also created the same day

Integration of Princely States

Led by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
Assisted by V.P. Menon

Outcome:

Most princely states joined India
Exceptions initially: Hyderabad, Junagarh, Kashmir

Kashmir Issue

Pakistan-supported invasion in October 1947
Maharaja Hari Singh signed Instrument of Accession to India
Kashmir became part of Indian Union

🧠 Quick Revision Points

1946 → Interim Government
1947 → Mountbatten Plan → Partition
15 Aug 1947 → Independence
Patel → Integration of States
Kashmir → First accession crisis

🇮🇳 Indian History – Integration of States & National Leaders

Integration of Princely & Colonial Territories

🟢 Junagarh (1948)

Held referendum in February 1948
Merged with Indian Union after Nawab fled to Pakistan

🟢 Hyderabad (1948)

Nizam resisted joining India
Due to internal unrest and Indian military action (Operation Polo), Hyderabad joined India

🟢 French Territories (1954)

Integrated into India:

Pondicherry (Puducherry)
Chandernagore
Mahe
Karaikal

🟢 Portuguese Territories

Dadra & Nagar Haveli (1954)
Goa, Daman & Diu (1961)

🇮🇳 Important National Leaders

Dadabhai Naoroji (1825–1917)

Known as “Grand Old Man of India”
First Indian to demand Swaraj (1906 INC session)
First Indian in British Parliament
Wrote Poverty and Un-British Rule in India
Developed Drain of Wealth Theory

Annie Besant (1847–1933)

Founder of Home Rule Movement in India
Established Central Hindu College (later BHU)
President of INC (1917)
Edited newspapers:
- New India
- Commonwealth
Promoted Theosophical ideas

Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856–1920)

Title: “Lokmanya”
Editor of Kesari (Marathi) and Maratha (English)
Started Ganapati Festival & Shivaji Festival
Leader of Extremist trio: Lal-Bal-Pal
Slogan: “Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it”
Founded Home Rule League (1916)
Books:
- Gita Rahasya
- The Arctic Home in the Vedas

Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (1838–1894)

Wrote “Vande Mataram”
First novel: Durgeshnandini
Started journal Bangadarshan

Bipin Chandra Pal (1858–1932)

Part of Lal-Bal-Pal trio
Strong supporter of Swadeshi Movement
Called “Father of Revolutionary Thought” (Aurobindo praise)
Supported Age of Consent Act (1891)

🧠 Quick Revision Points

1948 → Junagarh, Hyderabad integration
1954 → French territories
1961 → Goa integration
Dadabhai → Drain theory + Swaraj demand
Tilak → Extremist leader + Home Rule
Bankim → Vande Mataram

🇮🇳 Indian History – National Leaders & Gandhi Era

📰 Important Journalists / Newspapers (Revolutionary Press)

Edited multiple journals including:
- Bande Mataram (weekly)
- Public Opinion
- Tribune
- Hindustan Review (English monthly)
- Independent (daily)
- Democrat (weekly)
Promoted nationalist ideas through journalism

🇮🇳 Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941)

Rabindranath Tagore

Key Contributions:

Poet, philosopher, educationist, nationalist
Founded Shantiniketan (1901)
Founded Visva-Bharati University
Wrote Gitanjali → Nobel Prize (1913)

National Contributions:

Protested Partition of Bengal (1905)
Started Raksha Bandhan as a symbol of unity
Returned knighthood after Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919)

National Anthem:

India: Jana Gana Mana
Bangladesh: Amar Sonar Bangla

🇮🇳 Lala Lajpat Rai (1865–1928)

Lala Lajpat Rai

Known as “Lion of Punjab”
Associated with Arya Samaj and DAV movement
Opposed suspension of Non-Cooperation Movement
Injured during Simon Commission protest (1928)
Books:
- The Punjab and the People

🇮🇳 Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1866–1915)

Gopal Krishna Gokhale

Political mentor of Gandhi
President of INC (1905, Banaras Session)
Supported Swadeshi Movement
Founded Servants of India Society (1905)

🇮🇳 Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948)

Mahatma Gandhi

Early Satyagraha (South Africa):

Against racial discrimination laws (1906–1910)

Principles:

Ahimsa (Non-violence)
Satyagraha (Truth-force)

🌾 Major Satyagrahas in India

Champaran Satyagraha (1917)

Against Tinkathia system (indigo farmers)
First civil disobedience movement in India

Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)

Workers vs mill owners dispute
Gandhi’s hunger strike led to wage increase

Kheda Satyagraha (1918)

Peasants demanded tax relief due to famine
Non-payment of revenue movement

🧠 Quick Revision Points

Tagore → Shantiniketan + Nobel Prize
Lala Lajpat Rai → Simon Commission protest martyr
Gokhale → Gandhi’s political guru
Gandhi → Champaran, Ahmedabad, Kheda (early movements)

🇮🇳 Indian History – Gandhi, Leaders & National Figures

📰 Names given to Mahatma Gandhi

Mahatma Gandhi

“Indian / Traitor Fakir” → Winston Churchill (1931)
“Half Naked Saint” → Francis Mores (1931)
“Rashtrapita (Father of Nation)” → Subhas Chandra Bose (1944)

🇮🇳 Mahatma Gandhi (Summary)

Born: 2 Oct 1869, Porbandar (Gujarat)
Father: Karamchand Gandhi
Mother: Putlibai
Political Guru: Gopal Krishna Gokhale

Influences:

John Ruskin (Unto This Last)
Leo Tolstoy
Thoreau
Emerson
Bhagavad Gita

Newspapers Edited:

Indian Opinion (1903–1915)
Young India (1919–1932)
Harijan (1933–1942)

Books:

Hind Swaraj (1909)
My Experiments with Truth (Autobiography)

🇮🇳 Sarojini Naidu (1879–1949)

Sarojini Naidu

Known as “Nightingale of India”
First woman President of INC (1925 Kanpur Session)
Participated in:
- Non-Cooperation Movement
- Civil Disobedience Movement
- Quit India Movement
Led Salt Satyagraha in Dharasana

Literary Works:

The Golden Threshold
The Bird of Time
The Broken Wing
First woman Governor of Uttar Pradesh

🇮🇳 Chakravarti Rajagopalachari (1878–1972)

Rajagopalachari

First Indian Governor-General of independent India (1948–1950)
Governor of Bengal (1947)
Home Minister in first Cabinet
Founded Swatantra Party (1959)
Awarded Bharat Ratna (1954)
Prepared C.R. Formula (Congress-League agreement attempt)

🇮🇳 Dr. Rajendra Prasad (1884–1963)

Rajendra Prasad

Freedom Movement Participation:

Swadeshi Movement
Champaran Satyagraha
Non-Cooperation Movement
Civil Disobedience Movement
Quit India Movement

Contributions:

Founded National College, Patna
Minister of Food & Agriculture (1946 Interim Govt)
President of Constituent Assembly

Positions:

First President of India (1950–1962)
Bharat Ratna (1962)

🧠 Quick Revision Points

Gandhi → Leader of Indian National Movement
Sarojini Naidu → Nightingale + first INC woman president
Rajagopalachari → First Indian Governor-General
Rajendra Prasad → First President of India

🇮🇳 Indian National Movement – Quick Revision Notes

Early Nationalism & INC Formation

Indian National Congress founded in 1885
- First President: W.C. Bonnerjee
- Founder role: A.O. Hume
Early leaders (Moderates):
- Dadabhai Naoroji (Drain Theory, first Swaraj demand 1906)
- Gopal Krishna Gokhale
- Pherozeshah Mehta

Extremists Phase (1905–1917)

Leaders:

Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Swaraj is my birthright)
Bipin Chandra Pal
Lala Lajpat Rai

Key movement:

Partition of Bengal (Lord Curzon)
Result → Swadeshi & Boycott Movement
Anti-partition agitation (1905–08)

Revolutionary & Secret Societies

Hindustan Socialist Republican Association
- Leaders: Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad
Other groups:
- Abhinav Bharat
- Anushilan Samiti
- Ghadar Party (abroad)

Gandhian Era (1915 onwards)

Arrival of Gandhi

Mahatma Gandhi returned in 1915

Early Satyagrahas:

Champaran (1917)
Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)
Kheda (1918)

Major National Events

🔴 Rowlatt Act (1919)

Allowed detention without trial
Led to nationwide protests

🔴 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919)

Ordered by General Dyer
Huge turning point in nationalism

Khilafat & Non-Cooperation

Khilafat Movement

Led by Ali Brothers
Demanded restoration of Ottoman Caliph

Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22)

Launched by Gandhi
Boycott of schools, courts, foreign goods
Withdrawn after Chauri Chaura incident (1922)

Civil Disobedience Movement (1930)

Dandi March (Salt Satyagraha)
Started after Salt Law protest
Key leader: Gandhi

Important agreements:

Gandhi–Irwin Pact (1931)
Poona Pact (1932)

Quit India Movement (1942)

“Do or Die” slogan
Launched by INC under Gandhi
British response: mass arrests
Parallel governments formed (Satara, Ballia, etc.)

Towards Independence

Cabinet Mission (1946)

Proposed transfer of power plan

Mountbatten Plan (1947)

Led to partition of India and Pakistan

Independence Act (1947)

Creation of India & Pakistan

Important Leaders (Quick Facts)

Nehru

First PM of India
Jawaharlal Nehru

Bose

INA leader
Subhas Chandra Bose

Ambedkar

Constitution architect
B. R. Ambedkar

Tilak

Extremist leader, “Father of Indian unrest”

Key Movements Summary (One Line Revision)

Swadeshi → Anti-Partition Bengal
Non-Cooperation → Khilafat + Jallianwala Bagh
Civil Disobedience → Salt March
Quit India → Final mass struggle (1942)

📰 Indian History – Newspapers / Journals / Books (GK Revision)

🔥 Revolutionary Leaders (Key Books & Papers)

Bhagat Singh
- Militant Naujawan Bharat Sabha (Punjab organisation)
- Involved in Lahore Conspiracy Case
- Central Legislative Assembly bombing (1929)
- Executed on 23 March 1931

📚 Important Books / Writings by Leaders

🟡 Aurobindo Ghosh

Karmayogi
New Lamps for Old

🟡 Bankim Chandra Chatterjee

Anandamath
Durgesh Nandini
Bhawani Mandir

🟡 Dr. B. R. Ambedkar

Mook Nayak
Bahishkrit Bharat

🟡 Dadabhai Naoroji

Poverty and Un-British Rule in India
Voice of India

🟡 Dayanand Saraswati

Satyarth Prakash
Veda Bhashya Bhumika

🟡 Jawaharlal Nehru

Jawaharlal Nehru
- Discovery of India
- Glimpses of World History

🟡 Mahatma Gandhi

Mahatma Gandhi
- Hind Swaraj
- Young India
- Harijan
- My Experiments with Truth

🟡 Rabindranath Tagore

Rabindranath Tagore
- Gitanjali
- Gora

🟡 Swami Vivekananda

Prabuddha Bharat
Udbodhan

🟡 Bal Gangadhar Tilak

Bal Gangadhar Tilak
- Kesari
- Maratha
- Gita Rahasya

📰 Important Newspapers / Journals

🇮🇳 Nationalist Press

Bal Gangadhar Tilak
- Kesari (Marathi)
- Maratha (English)
Bipin Chandra Pal
- Paridarshak
Dadabhai Naoroji
- Rast Goftar
- Voice of India
Gopal Krishna Gokhale
- Sudharak
Lala Lajpat Rai
- Punjabi

🗞️ Other Important Publications

Aurobindo Ghosh
- Karmayogi
Annie Besant
- New India
- Commonwealth
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
- Al-Hilal
- Comrade
Madan Mohan Malaviya
- Leader
G. Subramania Iyer
- The Hindu
- Swadesamitran

🧠 Quick Exam Tricks

📌 Nationalist Press = Remember “K-B-T-G”

Kesari (Tilak)
Bande Mataram movement writings
The Hindu (Iyer)
Government opposition journals

📌 Important Themes:

Newspapers → Awakening nationalism
Books → Criticism of British rule
Journals → Reform + ideology spread

📘 Indian History – Authors / Editors & Freedom Struggle Dates

✍️ Important Authors / Editors & Works

Romesh Chunder Dutt
- Economic History of British India
R. P. Dutt
- India Today
Robert Knight
- Indian Statesman
- Bombay Times
S. A. Dange
- The Socialist
Subhas Chandra Bose
- Indian Struggle

📅 Important Dates – Indian Freedom Struggle (Quick Revision)

🟡 1905–1911: National Awakening Phase

1905 → Partition of Bengal announced
1906 (31 Dec) → All India Muslim League founded at Dacca
1908 (30 April) → Khudiram Bose executed
1908 (July) → Bal Gangadhar Tilak sentenced (6 years)
1909 → Morley–Minto Reforms
1911 → Partition of Bengal cancelled
1911 → Delhi becomes capital of India

🟡 1912–1915: Revolutionary Activity

1912 (Dec 23) → Bomb thrown on Lord Hardinge (Delhi)
1914 (Nov 1) → Ghadar Party formed (San Francisco)
1914 (Aug 4) → First World War begins
1914 (Sept) → Komagata Maru incident
1915 (Jan 9) → Gandhi returns to India
1915 (Feb 19) → Death of Gokhale

🟡 1916–1919: Home Rule & Gandhian Entry

1916 (Apr) → Tilak launches Home Rule League (Poona)
1916 (Sept) → Annie Besant’s Home Rule League
1917 → Champaran Satyagraha (Bihar)
1917 (Aug 20) → Montagu Declaration (Responsible Govt promise)
1918 → Beginning of Trade Union Movement
1919 (Feb 16) → Rowlatt Committee Report
1919 (Apr 13) → Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
1919 (Dec 5) → Government of India Act, 1919 passed

🟡 1920: Mass Movement Phase

1920 → First meeting of All India Trade Union Congress
1920 (Dec) → INC adopts Non-Cooperation Movement

🧠 Quick Revision Tricks

🔥 Timeline Shortcut:

1905 → Bengal Partition
1911 → Capital shift to Delhi
1919 → Jallianwala Bagh + Rowlatt Act
1920 → Non-Cooperation starts

📌 Most Important Exam Focus Areas

INC + Muslim League formation years
Gandhi’s entry (1915)
Rowlatt Act + Jallianwala Bagh (1919)
Home Rule Movement (1916)
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920)

📅 Indian Freedom Struggle – Important Dates (1920–1934)

🟡 Non-Cooperation & Early 1920s

1920–1922 → Non-Cooperation Movement
1922 (5 Feb) → Chauri Chaura incident
1922 (12 Feb) → Movement suspended by Gandhi
Malabar Rebellion (1921–22)
- Peasant uprising in Malabar region
1923 (Jan 1) → Swaraj Party formed
- Leaders: Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das
1924 → Communist Party activities begin (Kanpur)
1925 (Aug 1) → Kakori Train Conspiracy

🟡 Simon Commission & National Response

1927 (Nov 8) → Simon Commission announced
1928 (Feb 3) → Simon Commission arrives in India
Nationwide protest: “Simon Go Back”
1928 (Nov 17) → Death of Lala Lajpat Rai
Lala Lajpat Rai
- Died after police lathi charge during Simon protest

🟡 Nehru Report & Radicalisation

1928 → Nehru Report published
1928 (Aug–Sep) → All Parties Conference discusses Nehru Report

🟡 1929: Turning Point Year

1929 (Mar 8) → Muslim League’s Fourteen Points (Jinnah)
1929 (Apr 8) → Bhagat Singh & Batukeshwar Dutt bomb Assembly
1929 (Oct 31) → Irwin declares Dominion Status
1929 (Dec 31) → Lahore Session of INC
- Declares Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence)
- Tricolour hoisted on Ravi River

🟡 1930: Civil Disobedience Begins

1930 (Jan 26) → First Independence Day observed
1930 (Mar 12) → Gandhi starts Dandi March
Mahatma Gandhi
- Leads Salt Satyagraha (Civil Disobedience Movement)
1930 (Nov 30) → First Round Table Conference begins (London)

🟡 1931: Gandhi-Irwin Pact & Revolutionaries

1931 (Mar 5) → Gandhi–Irwin Pact signed
Civil Disobedience Movement suspended
1931 (Mar 23) → Execution of:
- Bhagat Singh
- Rajguru
- Sukhdev
Bhagat Singh
1931 (Sep 7) → Second Round Table Conference

🟡 1932: Communal Award & Poona Pact

1932 (Jan 4) → Gandhi arrested
1932 (Aug 16) → Communal Award announced (Ramsay MacDonald)
1932 (Sep 20–26) → Gandhi fast unto death
- Ends with Poona Pact (with Ambedkar)

🟡 1933–1934: End of Civil Movement Phase

1933 (Nov 17) → Third Round Table Conference begins
1934 (May) → Civil Disobedience Movement suspended
Gandhi withdraws from active politics
- Focus shifts to constructive programs

🧠 Quick Revision Formula (Very Important)

🔥 Must-Remember Sequence:

1920 → Non-Cooperation
1922 → Chauri Chaura (movement ends)
1928 → Simon Commission
1929 → Purna Swaraj
1930 → Dandi March
1931 → Gandhi-Irwin Pact + Bhagat Singh execution
1932 → Communal Award + Poona Pact

📅 Indian Freedom Struggle – Final Phase (1935–1947)

🟡 Government of India Act & Elections

1935 → Government of India Act 1935
- Provincial autonomy introduced
- Federal structure proposed
1937 (Feb) → Provincial elections held
1937 (July) → Congress forms ministries in provinces

🟡 Congress Leadership Changes

1938 (Feb) → Haripura Session
- President: Subhas Chandra Bose
Subhas Chandra Bose
- Elected Congress President (1938)
1939 (March 10–12) → Tripuri Session
- Bose resigns after differences with Gandhi

🟡 Second World War Impact

1939 (Sept 3) → World War II begins
Britain drags India into war without consent
Congress ministries resign (1939)
1939 (Dec 22) → Muslim League observes “Deliverance Day”

🟡 Demand for Pakistan

1940 (March) → Lahore Session
- All India Muslim League
- Passes Pakistan Resolution

🟡 British Offers & Rejection

1940 (Aug 8) → August Offer
1940 (Aug 18–22) → Congress rejects it
1941 → Subhas Chandra Bose escapes to Germany
Forms Indian Independence activities abroad

🟡 Quit India Movement & INA

1942 (March) → Cripps Mission
1942 (Aug 7–8) → Quit India Resolution
Mahatma Gandhi
- Launches Quit India Movement
1942 (Aug 9) → Congress leaders arrested
1942 (Aug 11) → Quit India Movement begins
1942 (Sept 1) → INA formed
- Led by Subhas Chandra Bose
1943 (Oct 21) → Azad Hind Government declared

🟡 Towards Independence (1944–1947)

1944 (Jan 25) → Shimla Conference (Wavell Plan attempt)
1946 (Feb 18) → Royal Indian Navy Mutiny
1946 (Mar) → Cabinet Mission sent to India
1946 (June) → Nehru becomes Congress President
1946 (Aug) → Interim Government formed
1946 (Dec 9) → Constituent Assembly begins
- Muslim League boycotts

🟡 Final Phase to Freedom

1947 (Feb 20) → Attlee announces British exit plan
1947 (Mar 24) → Lord Mountbatten becomes Viceroy
Mountbatten Plan
- Announced 3 June 1947
- Partition decided
1947 (Aug 15) → India becomes independent

🧠 Ultra Quick Revision (Very Important)

🔥 5 Most Important Years:

1935 → Government of India Act
1937 → Congress ministries
1940 → Pakistan Resolution
1942 → Quit India Movement
1947 → Independence

📌 One-Line Memory Trick:

👉 “1935 Act → 1937 power → 1940 Pakistan → 1942 Quit India → 1947 Freedom”

📘 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE – Indian History (Clean Notes)

🟠 Religion (Basic Concept)

Religion = belief system connecting humans to spirituality and moral values. It has a social character, not just personal belief.

🟣 Major Religions

🟡 Buddhism

Founder: Mahatma Buddha
Indigenous religion of India
Sacred text: Tripitaka
Three Jewels:
- Buddha
- Dhamma
- Sangha
Two main branches:
- Theravada
- Mahayana

🟡 Hinduism

No single founder
Origin: Vedic tradition (Iron Age India)
Third largest religion in the world
Major texts:
- Vedas
- Ramayana
- Mahabharata
Philosophical nature (not rigid system)

🟡 Islam

Founder: Prophet Muhammad
Holy book: Quran
Second largest religion in the world
Two main sects:
- Sunni
- Shia
Arrived in India: 8th century AD

🟡 Christianity

Founder: Jesus Christ
Holy book: Bible
Largest religion in the world (as per notes)
Divisions:
- Catholic
- Protestant
Sacred texts:
- Old Testament
- New Testament

🟡 Sikhism

Founder: Guru Nanak
Holy book: Guru Granth Sahib
Developed in India (16th–17th century)
Third largest religion in India

🟡 Jainism

Founder: Mahavira Swami
Indigenous Indian religion
Holy texts: Agamas, Kalpa Sutras
Main doctrines:
- Ahimsa (non-violence)
- Syadvada
- Anekantavada
Sects:
- Svetambara
- Digambara

📚 LANGUAGES

🟠 Sanskrit

Mother of many Indian languages
Oldest classical language of India
Texts in Sanskrit:
- Vedas
- Upanishads
- Puranas
- Dharmasutras
Important works:
- Manusmriti
- Arthashastra
- Gita Govinda
Famous scholars:
- Panini
- Kautilya
- Kalhana
- Jayadeva

📘 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE – Indian History (Languages & Literature)

🟣 Pali

Indo-Aryan language
Used in earliest Buddhist scriptures
Main focus: Theravada Buddhism

🟣 Persian & Urdu

🟡 Urdu

Developed as a language through interaction of Hindi + Persian
Became popular in 18th century
Early poet: Amir Khusrau
Poetry form: Nazm
Became an independent language by medieval period (late phase development)

🟣 Dravidian Languages

🟡 Telugu

Golden age: Vijayanagara Empire
Ashtadiggajas = 8 literary scholars of Telugu
Famous work:
- Panduranga Mahatmyam (Ramakrishna / Tenali Ramakrishna tradition)

🟡 Kannada

Fully developed after 10th century AD
Earliest work: Kavirajamarga
Author: Amoghavarsha I
“Father of Kannada literature”: Pampa
- Works:
  - Adipurana
  - Vikramarjuna Vijaya

🟡 Malayalam

Emerged around 11th century AD
Independent language by 15th century
Important works:
- Bhasa Kautilya (commentary on Arthashastra)
Famous writers:
- Ramanujan Ezhuthachan
- Rama Panikkar

🟡 Tamil

Oldest Dravidian language
Famous for Sangam Literature
Features:
- ~30,000 lines of poetry
- Organized into Ettuthokai (8 anthologies)

🟣 Hindi

Derived from Sanskrit → Prakrit → Apabhramsha
Major regions: North India
Literary periods:
- Adi Kal
- Bhakti Kal
- Riti Kal
- Modern Kal

🟣 Bengali Literature

Developed strongly during Bhakti movement
Early writers:
- Raja Ram Mohan Roy
- Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
- Akshay Kumar Dutta
Major figure:
- Rabindranath Tagore
  - Nobel Prize (1913) for Gitanjali
  - Wrote novels, essays, music, drama

🟣 Assamese Literature

Influenced by Bhakti movement
Key figure: Shankaradeva
- Spread Vaishnavism in Assam
- Helped growth of Assamese literature
Many Puranas translated into Assamese

📘 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE – Indian History (Languages, Literature & Music)

🟣 Assamese Literature

Early form: Buranjis (court chronicles)
Early devotional poetry by Shankaradeva
Assamese literature developed more after 1827
Shankaradeva promoted Vaishnavism
Many Puranas were translated into Assamese

🟣 Odia (Oriya) Literature

Heavily influenced by Sanskrit
Origin: 9th century AD
Literary development: 13th century
Important writers:
- Fakir Mohan Senapati
- Radhanath Ray
- Upendra Bhanja (1670–1720) (important literary revival figure)
- Sarala Das (early Oriya literature pioneer)

🟣 Punjabi Literature

Written in two scripts:
- Gurmukhi
- Persian
First Punjabi poet: Guru Nanak
Other contributors:
- Sufi saints (early poetry tradition)
Guru Gobind Singh
- Composed Punjabi devotional works (not part of Adi Granth)
Famous poet:
- Bulleh Shah (Sufi poet, highly influential)

🟣 Indian Literature in English

Early Writers

Raja Rammohan Roy
Henry Derozio
Madhusudan Dutt
Aurobindo Ghosh
- Epic: Savitri

Important Writers

Rabindranath Tagore
- Nobel Prize (1913) for Gitanjali
Sarojini Naidu
Jawaharlal Nehru
- The Discovery of India
- Glimpses of World History

Modern Writers

Nissim Ezekiel
Dom Moraes
Arun Kolatkar
Dilip Chitre
Khushwant Singh
Salman Rushdie
Vikram Seth
Arundhati Roy
Kamala Markandaya
Kiran Desai
Jhumpa Lahiri

🎼 MUSIC OF INDIA

General Features

One of the oldest musical traditions in the world
Developed from ancient Indian cultural systems and philosophies

🟣 Hindustani Classical Music

Origin

Developed in North India (13th–14th century)
Influenced by:
- Vedic traditions
- Persian music

Core Concept: Raga System

Raga = melodic framework
Based on 7 notes:
- Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni
Each raga depends on:
- Note pattern
- Ascent (Arohana)
- Descent (Avarohana)

Characteristics

Primarily vocal-based
Major forms:
- Bhajan
- Ghazal
- Dhrupad
- Khayal
- Thumri
- Tappa

🎼 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE – Indian History (Music: Gharanas & Forms)

🎵 Semi-Classical & Devotional Music Forms

🟣 Thumri

Informal semi-classical vocal form
Associated with court of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah (Awadh)
Romantic and expressive style

🟣 Dadra

Semi-classical form
Also refers to a 6-beat tala (rhythm cycle)
Popular in Uttar Pradesh and Bundelkhand

🟣 Qawwali

Sufi devotional music form
Performed mainly at dargahs (Sufi shrines)
Origin: 8th century Persia
Languages: Urdu, Punjabi

🟣 Ghazal

Poetic musical form with rhyming couplets
Origin: Arabic (6th century)
Spread to India in 12th century via Sufism

🟣 Hori

Semi-classical seasonal singing form
Popular in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar
Associated with festivals (especially Holi themes)

🟣 Kirtan

Call-and-response devotional singing
Linked to Bhakti movement
Performed in temples and congregations

🎼 GHARANAS (Schools of Hindustani Music)

🟣 Concept of Gharana

Traditional schools of music training
Each gharana has unique style and techniques
Based on guru–shishya parampara (teacher–student tradition)

🎤 Major Gharanas

🟡 Gwalior Gharana

Oldest Khayal style gharana
Features:
- Simple and clear singing
- Powerful and resonant voice

🟡 Kirana Gharana

Named after Kirana (near Kurukshetra)
Founded by Abdul Karim Khan
Features:
- Emphasis on swara (note)
- Slow elaboration and emotional depth
- Use of meend (glides)

🟡 Rampur-Sahaswan Gharana

Focus on clarity of notes
Step-by-step raga development
Balanced and structured singing

🟡 Patiala Gharana

Offshoot of Delhi Gharana
Features:
- Strong rhythm play (layakari)
- Fast bol-tans
- Ornamentation in singing

🟡 Delhi Gharana

Early classical tradition
Known for:
- Beautiful riyaz (practice style)
- Elegant compositions

🟡 Bhendi Bazaar Gharana

Focus on open-throated singing
Emphasis on:
- Breath control
- Long musical phrases in single breath

🟡 Banaras Gharana

Developed from Thumri tradition
Strong influence of devotional and semi-classical singing

🟡 Mewati Gharana

Focus on emotional expression of raga
Importance of:
- Meaning of lyrics
- Bhava (mood expression)

🎼 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE – Indian History (Musical Instruments & Instrumentalists)

🎻 STRINGED INSTRUMENTS

🟣 Rudra Veena

Ustad Asad Ali Khan
Zia Moin-ud-din Dagar

🟣 Santoor

Shivkumar Sharma

🟣 Sarod

Buddhadev Dasgupta
Ali Akbar Khan
Amjad Ali Khan
Bahadur Khan

🟣 Sarangi

Ustad Binda Khan
Shakoor Khan (traditionally known performers)

🟣 Sitar

Ravi Shankar
Vilayat Khan
Nikhil Banerjee
Mustaq Ali Khan

🟣 Surbahar

Annapurna Devi
Zarin S. Sharma

🟣 Veena

S. Balachander
Chitti Babu
Emani Sankara Shastri
Dhanammal
Dwaram Venkataswamy Naidu

🟣 Violin

L. Subramaniam
M.S. Gopalakrishnan
T.N. Krishnan
Lalgudi G. Jayaraman
Mysore T. Chowdiah
G. J. R. Krishnan
Baluswamy Dikshitar
Dwaram Venkataswamy Naidu

🎶 WIND INSTRUMENTS

🟣 Flute (Bansuri)

Hariprasad Chaurasia
Pannalal Ghosh
T.R. Mahalingam
N. Ramani

🟣 Nadaswaram

Sheikh Chinna Moulana
Neeruswamy Pillai
Rajaratanam Pillai

🥁 PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

🟣 Mridangam

Palghat Mani Iyer
Karaikudi R. Mani
Palghat Raghu

🟣 Pakhawaj

Ayodhya Prasad
Gopal Das
Babu Ram Shankar Pagaldas

🟣 Tabla

Zakir Hussain
Alla Rakha Khan
Kishan Maharaj
Pandit Samta Prasad
Nikhil Ghosh
Kumar Bose
Latif Khan

🟣 Kanjira

Pudukkottai Dakshinamurthi Pillai

🎤 VOCAL TRADITIONS & VOCALISTS

🟣 Carnatic Vocal

M.S. Subbulakshmi
Balamuralikrishna
Bombay Jayashri
M.L. Vasanthakumari
M.D. Ramanathan
G.N. Balasubramaniam
Aruna Sairam
T.N. Seshagopalan

🟣 Dhrupad

Ustad Rahim Fahim-ud-din Dagar
Zahir-ud-din Dagar
Wasif-ud-din Dagar
Uday Bhawalkar
Bundecha Bandhu
Falguni Mitra (traditionally associated)
Ritwik Sanyal

🟣 Khayal (Hindustani Classical)

Pandit Jasraj
Kumar Gandharva
Girija Devi
Parveen Sultana
Gangubai Hangal
Mallikarjun Mansur
Kishori Amonkar (commonly included in GK lists)
Faiyaz Khan
Ustad Ghulam Mustafa Khan

🟣 Thumri

Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan
Rasoolan Bai (traditional reference)
Shobha Gurtu
Naina Devi
Shanti Hiranand

🟣 Qawwali

Ghulam Hasan Niyazi
Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan (widely accepted GK addition)
Ghulam Farid Nizami
Sabri Brothers (Ghulam Farid Sabri, Maqbool Sabri)
Aslam Sabri

🎭 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE – INDIAN HISTORY

🇮🇳 Indian Classical Dances (Quick Revision)

India has a rich tradition of classical dance forms linked with religion, mythology, and temple culture. There are 6 major classical dances:

Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu, Karnataka)

One of the oldest classical dances of India
Origin: Temple dance system (Devadasi tradition)
Music: Carnatic music
Styles: Pandanallur, Thanjavur
Features: fixed upper body, intricate footwork, expressions

Famous dancers:

E. Krishna Iyer
Rukmini Devi Arundale
Anna Pavlova

Kathak (North India)

Origin: from “Katha” = storytelling
Developed in Lucknow & Jaipur gharanas
Mughal influence in Lucknow style
Focus: spins (chakkars), footwork, expressions

Famous dancers:

Sitara Devi
Shambhu Maharaj
Shovana Narayan

Kathakali (Kerala)

Meaning: “story play”
Dance-drama form with heavy makeup and costumes
Based on Hindu epics
Emphasis on facial expressions and gestures

Famous exponents:

Kalamandalam Ramankutty Nair
Guru Gopinath
Vallathol Narayana Menon

Manipuri (Manipur)

Devotional dance style (Vaishnavism influence)
Soft, graceful, flowing movements
Focus on spiritual expression
Light footwork and lyrical music

Famous exponents:

Guru Bipin Singh
Darshana Jhaveri
Nirmala Mehta

Mohiniyattam (Kerala)

Solo dance performed by women
“Dance of the enchantress (Mohini)”
Combines grace of Bharatanatyam + strength of Kathakali
Slow, flowing movements

Famous dancers:

Kalamandalam Kalyanikutty Amma
Bharati Shivaji
Hema Malini

Odissi (Odisha)

Known for tribhanga posture (three bends)
Depicts devotion to Lord Jagannath
Smooth, lyrical, sculptural movements

Famous dancers:

Indrani Rehman
Sonal Mansingh
Kelucharan Mohapatra (guru)

⭐ SUPER QUICK MEMORY TRICK

Tamil Nadu → Bharatanatyam
North India → Kathak
Kerala → Kathakali + Mohiniyattam
Manipur → Manipuri
Odisha → Odissi

💃 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE – INDIAN HISTORY

🇮🇳 Folk & Tribal Dances of India (State-wise)

🟢 Maharashtra

Lavani
Tamasha
Lezim
Dandaniya
Gafa
Dahikala
Kathakeertan

🟢 Karnataka

Yakshagana
Huttari
Suggi Kunitha

🟢 Kerala

Kaikottikali
Kaliyatt

🏛️ GENERAL KNOWLEDGE – INDIAN HISTORY

🇮🇳 Architecture, Puppetry & Painting (Quick Revision)

🏰 ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA

Indian architecture evolved due to historical, cultural, and regional influences, especially Indo-Islamic interaction.

🟠 Indo-Islamic Architecture

Blend of Hindu + Islamic styles
Not purely Hindu or Islamic
Developed during medieval period

🟠 Rajput Architecture

Famous for forts and palaces
Built as fortified citadels
Surrounded by strong walls and cities inside

🏯 Examples:

Chittorgarh Fort
Jaisalmer Fort
Jodhpur, Udaipur, Bikaner Palaces
Bharatpur & Deeg (moats used for protection)

⭐ Features:

Massive forts
Decorative palaces
Defensive architecture

🟠 Deccan Style

Unique and independent style
Influence of Delhi Sultanate + Persian architecture

⭐ Features:

Bulbous domes (onion-shaped)
Lotus designs
Thick walls
Military-style forts
Example: Charminar (Hyderabad)

🟠 Mughal Architecture

Known as Indo-Islamic architecture
Blend of Persian + Indian styles

🏗️ Early examples:

Qutub Minar
Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque

⭐ Features:

Domes, arches, minarets
Gardens (charbagh style)
Marble structures

🎭 PUPPETRY IN INDIA

Used to tell stories of kings, heroes, myths
Initially performed in temples & villages
Later became entertainment in cities
Also used for social & political themes

🎨 INDIAN PAINTING

🟣 General Features

One of the oldest art forms in India
Origin: cave paintings
Developed through religious and court traditions

🟣 Mughal School of Painting

Developed under Mughal Empire
Miniature painting style (small detailed paintings)
Blend of:
- Persian art
- Indian traditions (Hindu, Jain, Buddhist)

👑 Patrons:

Akbar
Jahangir

🎯 Themes:

Court scenes
Portraits
Hunting scenes
Battles
Royal life

🟣 Rajput School of Painting

Developed in Rajput courts (18th century)
Influenced by Mughal style but more devotional

🎨 Features:

Religious themes (Krishna, Rama stories)
Bright colors
Romantic and spiritual subjects

⭐ QUICK REVISION TRICK

🏰 Rajput = Forts + Palaces
🕌 Mughal = Domes + Gardens + Miniatures
🏯 Deccan = Bulbous domes + military style
🎭 Puppetry = storytelling tradition
🎨 Painting = Mughal (court) + Rajput (devotional)

🎨 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE – INDIAN HISTORY

🇮🇳 Painting, Cultural Heritage Sites & Schools

🖼️ PAINTING IN INDIA

🟠 Rajput Painting (Main Style)

Developed in Rajput kingdoms
Strong indigenous Indian style
Themes:
- Landscapes
- Ramayana
- Mahabharata
- Life of Krishna
- Human emotions & daily life

⭐ Features:

Bright colors
Religious devotion
Nature + mythology focus

🏛️ CULTURAL HERITAGE SITES OF INDIA

🟣 Important UNESCO / Heritage Sites

🏯 Temples & Monuments

Mahabodhi Temple (Bihar)
Konark Sun Temple (Odisha)
Pattadakal (Karnataka)
Mahabalipuram (Tamil Nadu)
Great Living Chola Temples (Tamil Nadu)

🕌 Forts & Tombs

Red Fort (Delhi)
Qutub Minar (Delhi)
Humayun’s Tomb (Delhi)
Agra Fort (Uttar Pradesh)
Fatehpur Sikri (Uttar Pradesh)
Taj Mahal (Uttar Pradesh)

🎨 BENGAL SCHOOL OF ART

🟢 Background

Developed during British rule (early 20th century)
Linked with Indian nationalism
Reaction against Western academic painting style

🟢 Features

Inspired by Indian history, culture, and spirituality
Focus on Indian themes instead of European style
Promoted cultural revival

👨‍🎨 Important Artists

Abanindranath Tagore
E. B. Havell (supporter)
Nandalal Bose
Asit Kumar Haldar

🟢 Modern Artists (related tradition)

Nilima Dutta
Bikash Bhattacharjee
Sudip Roy
Paresh Maity

⭐ QUICK REVISION TRICKS

🏯 Rajput Painting → Ramayana + Krishna + bright colors
🕌 Mughal (earlier) → court life + miniatures
🎨 Bengal School → nationalism + Indian culture revival
🏛️ Heritage sites → mix of temples, caves, forts, tombs

🌍 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE – WORLD HISTORY

🏺 Ancient Civilizations & Renaissance (Quick Revision)

🏛️ MESOPOTAMIAN CIVILISATION

Oldest civilization in the world
Located between Tigris & Euphrates rivers

⭐ Contributions:

First use of potter’s wheel
First glass-making
Developed Cuneiform script (earliest writing system)
Developed sexagesimal system (base 60) → used in time measurement
Early knowledge of mathematics (linked to Pythagoras theorem ideas)
Day and night calculation system

🏯 CHINESE CIVILISATION

Developed under Shang, Zhou, Qin, and Han dynasties

⭐ Achievements:

Construction of Great Wall of China
Pictographic writing system
Solar-lunar calendar
Silk trade (major export during Han dynasty)

⭐ Religion & inventions:

Confucianism
Taoism
Inventions:
- Abacus
- Water clock
- Umbrella

🏺 IRANIAN (PERSIAN) CIVILISATION

Developed under Achaemenid Empire
Founder: Cyrus the Great

⭐ Important rulers:

Cyrus
Darius I
Darius III

⭐ Contributions:

Introduction of gold & silver coins
Official language: Aramaic
Religion: Zoroastrianism (Zarathustra)

🏛️ GREEK CIVILISATION

Developed around 800 BC
Formed city-states (polis)

⭐ Gods:

Zeus (Sky)
Poseidon (Sea)
Apollo (Sun)
Athena (Wisdom/Victory)

⭐ Contributions:

Defeated Persian ruler Darius I
Olympic Games originated here
Famous epics:
- Iliad
- Odyssey (Homer)

⭐ Famous ruler:

Alexander the Great

🏛️ ROMAN CIVILISATION

Center: Rome (Italy)
Founder: Romulus (legendary)

⭐ Events:

Punic Wars (Rome vs Carthage)
Julius Caesar became ruler of Rome
Followed by Octavian (Augustus) and Diocletian

⭐ Contributions:

Latin language
Roman law system
Architecture (use of concrete)

⭐ Thinkers:

Cicero, Seneca, Lucretius, Marcus Aurelius
Historians: Tacitus, Pliny
Poets: Virgil, Horace

🎨 RENAISSANCE (REVIVAL OF LEARNING)

Started in 14th century Italy
Meaning: “Rebirth of knowledge”

⭐ Causes:

Fall of Constantinople (1453)
Spread of Greek & Roman scholars

⭐ Features:

Revival of art, science, literature
Humanism developed
Printing press helped spread knowledge

🎨 Famous Writers:

Dante
Petrarch
Boccaccio
Machiavelli

🎨 Famous Artists:

Leonardo da Vinci → Mona Lisa, Last Supper
Michelangelo → Sistine Chapel, Last Judgment
Raphael → Madonna paintings

⭐ QUICK REVISION TRICK

🏺 Mesopotamia → Writing + 60 system
🏯 China → Great Wall + Silk + Confucius
🏛️ Persia → Cyrus + Zoroastrianism
🏛️ Greece → Olympics + Mythology
🏛️ Rome → Law + Latin + Concrete
🎨 Renaissance → Art + Science rebirth

🌍 WORLD HISTORY – QUICK REVISION

🏺 Ancient Civilisations

Mesopotamian Civilisation

Oldest civilisation of the world
Located between Tigris & Euphrates rivers
Developed:
- Cuneiform writing system
- Pottery wheel & glassware
- Sexagesimal system (base 60)
Contributions influenced later mathematics and astronomy

Chinese Civilisation

Early dynasties: Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han
Great Wall of China built in 3rd century BC
Inventions: paper, compass, abacus, water clock
Religions: Confucianism and Taoism
Silk trade flourished via Silk Route

Iranian (Persian) Civilisation

Achaemenid Empire (6th century BC) founded by Cyrus
Important rulers: Cyrus, Darius I, Darius III
Introduced coinage (gold & silver)
Religion: Zoroastrianism
Official language: Aramaic

Greek Civilisation

Developed city-states (polis) around 800 BC
Gods: Zeus, Athena, Apollo, Poseidon
Olympics originated in Greece
Famous epics: Iliad and Odyssey by Homer
Defeated Persians under Darius I

Roman Civilisation

Centre: Italy (Rome founded by Romulus)
Punic Wars fought with Carthage
Julius Caesar, Augustus (Octavian) important rulers
Contributions:
- Latin language
- Concrete construction
Thinkers: Cicero, Seneca, Virgil

🎨 Renaissance (14th–16th Century)

Renaissance

Began in Italy
Revival of art, science, literature, humanism
Trigger: Fall of Constantinople (1453)
Key figures:
- Leonardo da Vinci (Mona Lisa)
- Michelangelo (Sistine Chapel)
- Raphael
- Dante, Petrarch, Machiavelli
Led to invention of printing press

⛪ Reformation (16th Century)

Protestant Reformation

Started by Martin Luther in Germany
Protest against Catholic Church corruption
Sale of indulgences opposed
Result: split into Catholic and Protestant Europe

👑 Glorious Revolution (1688)

Glorious Revolution

Against King James II of England
William of Orange invited to throne
Result:
- Constitutional monarchy established
- Bill of Rights (1689)
- End of absolute monarchy in England

🏭 Industrial Revolution

Industrial Revolution

Began in Britain (~1750)
Key inventions:
- Spinning Jenny
- Water Frame
- Power Loom
- Steam Engine (James Watt)
Led to:
- Factory system
- Urbanisation
- Mass production

🇺🇸 American Revolution

American Revolution

Against British rule
Events:
- Boston Tea Party (1773)
- Declaration of Independence (1776) by Thomas Jefferson
Leader: George Washington
End: Treaty of Paris (1783)
USA Constitution developed later

🇫🇷 French Revolution

French Revolution

Started in 1789 under Louis XVI
Causes:
- Inequality
- Heavy taxation
- Economic crisis
Ideas:
- Liberty, Equality, Fraternity
Thinkers: Rousseau, Voltaire, Montesquieu

🇩🇪 Unification of Germany

Unification of Germany

Led by Otto von Bismarck (Iron & Blood policy)
Steps:
- Defeated Austria (1866)
- Franco-Prussian War (1870–71)
1871: William I declared Emperor at Versailles

🌍 IMPORTANT WARS OF THE 20th CENTURY

⚔️ Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905)

Russo-Japanese War

Conflict between Russia and Japan
Cause: Control over Manchuria & Korea
Result:
- Japan defeated Russia
- Japan gained Korea, Liaotung Peninsula & Sakhalin
First major Asian victory over a European power

🌐 First World War (1914–1918)

World War I

Between:
- Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary
- Allied Powers: Britain, France, Russia
Trigger: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
Features:
- Trench warfare
- Naval blockade of Germany
Ended with defeat of Central Powers

🇨🇳 Sino-Japanese Wars

First Sino-Japanese War
Second Sino-Japanese War

Japan vs China
1894–95: Control over Korea
1937–45: Expansion of Japanese empire in Asia
Merged into wider conflict during WWII

🌍 Second World War (1939–1945)

World War II

Axis Powers: Germany, Italy, Japan
Allied Powers: Britain, USA, USSR, France
Cause: Expansionist policies of Germany & Japan
USA entered after Pearl Harbor (1941)
Result: Axis defeat, reshaping of world order

🇰🇷 Korean War (1950–1953)

Korean War

North Korea (supported by USSR & China)
South Korea (supported by UN & USA)
Result:
- Armistice in 1953
- Korea remained divided (North & South)

🇮🇱 Arab–Israeli Wars

Arab–Israeli conflict

Began after creation of Israel (1948)
Major wars:
- 1948 War (Independence War)
- 1956 Suez Crisis
- 1967 Six-Day War
- 1973 Yom Kippur War
Ongoing regional conflict

What is History?

History is Systematic Study of Past

Who is Father of History?

Herodotus (Greek)

Who is Father of Modern History?

Leopold von Ranke

ANCIENT INDIA

THE EARLY MAN

The fossils of the early human being have been found in Africa about 2.6 million years back, but there are no such evidence in India. So, it appears that India was inhabited later than Africa.

The recent reported artefacts from Bori in Maharashtra suggest that the appearance of human beings in India was around 1.4 million years ago.

The evolution of the Earth’s crust shows four stages. The fourth stage is divided into Pleistocene (most recent) and Holocene (present).

Man is said to have appeared on the Earth in the early Pleistocene.

The early man in India used tools of stone roughly dressed by crude chipping. This period is therefore, known as the Stone Age, which has been divided into:

The Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age

The Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age

The Neolithic or New Stone Age

The Palaeolithic Age (500000 BC–9000 BC)

The Palaeolithic culture of India developed in the Pleistocene period of the ice age.

It seems that Palaeolithic men belonged to the Negrito race. Homo Sapiens first appeared towards the end of this phase.

Palaeolithic men were hunters and food gatherers. They had no knowledge of agriculture, fire or pottery, they used tools of unpolished, rough stones and lived in cave rock shelters. They are also called Quartzite men.

This age is divided into three phases according to the nature of the stone tools used by the people and change in the climate.

Early or Lower Palaeolithic

Middle Palaeolithic

Upper Palaeolithic

Phases of the Palaeolithic Age

Age

Tools

Climate

Sites

Early

Hand axes, cleavers and choppers

Humidity decreased

Soan valley (Punjab)

Middle

Flakes-blades, points, borers and scrapers

Further decrease in humidity

Valleys of Soan, Narmada and Tungabhadra rivers

Upper

Scrapers and burin

Warm climate

Caves and rockshelters of this age have been discovered at Bhimbetka near Bhopal

The Mesolithic Age (9000 BC – 4000 BC)

It intervened as a transitional phase between the Palaeolithic Age and the Neolithic Age.

In this age, climate became warm and dry, which brought about changes in fauna and flora and made it possible for human beings to move to new areas.

The Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and food-gathering. At a later stage, they also domesticated animals.

The characteristic tools of the Mesolithic Age are microliths, pointed crescent blades, scrapers, etc. made up of stones.

Bagor in Rajasthan provides archaeological evidence for the domestication of animals.

The people of Palaeolithic and Mesolithic ages worshipped painting, which were of Palaeolithic-Mesolithic age. Pre-historic painting of Mesolithic age.

The Neolithic Age (4000 BC – 1800 BC)

The people of this age are characterised by the use of polished stone tools. They particularly used stone axes.

It is interesting that in Burzahom dogs were buried with their masters in their graves.

The Neolithic settlers were the earliest farming communities. They practised agriculture along with domestication. Noted for the cultivation of rice at the sixth millennium BC. They domesticated cattle, sheep and goats. They wove cotton and wool to make clothes.

Wheat made pottery and use of stone tools also appeared during the Neolithic age.

Neolithic men lived in caves and decorated their walls with hunting and dancing scenes. They kept their ‘fires’ in round pits. In the later phase, people made huts modelled the walls of circular and rectangular houses made of mud and reed.

Koldihwa in UP revealed a three-fold cultural sequence: Neolithic, Chalcolithic and iron age. Mehrgarh in Baluchistan is the oldest Neolithic site in India (7000 BC).

Important sites include Chirandgarh region, Central India and South of the Krishna river. Belan valley of Vindhyas and middle part of the Narmada valley shows all the three phases of Stone age.

Chalcolithic Culture (1800 BC – 1000 BC)

The end of the Neolithic period saw the use of metals. Copper was the first metal to be used.

Chalcolithic culture refers to the ‘Chalco-copper phase’. People also used bronze axes and other objects made up of copper.

Chalcolithic people were primarily rural communities. They domesticated animals and practised agriculture. They were not acquainted with burnt bricks and lived in thatched houses. They worshipped the mother Goddess and venerated the bull.

The people of Chalcolithic culture were the first to use cotton, probably which was de-ginned and woven to make clothes.

The Malwa ware is considered the richest in ceramics.

Important sites of this phase are spread in Rajasthan, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh etc.

INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION

Geographical Spread

Indus civilisation is one of the four earliest civilisations of the world along with the civilisations of Mesopotamia (Tigris and Euphrates), Egypt (Nile) and China (Hwang Ho).

The civilisation forms parts of the north-western of India and belongs to the Bronze age.

The most accepted period is 2500–1700 BC (Acc. Carbon-14 dating).

It can be divided into following sub-periods:

Early Phase 2900–2500 BC

Mature Phase 2500–1900 BC

Late (Post-Urban) Phase 1900–1700 BC

Dayaram Sahni first discovered Harappa in 1921.

RD Banerjee discovered Mohenjodaro – on Mohenjo-daro in 1922.

Nomenclature of Indus Valley Civilisation

Indus Valley Civilisation as it is mostly along the Indus river.

Harappan Civilisation named by John Marshall after the first discovered site, Harappa.

Saraswati-Sindhu Civilisation as most of the sites have been found at the Hakra-Ghaggar river.

Geographical Spread (Details)

The civilisation covered parts of Sindh, Baluchistan, Afghanistan, West Punjab, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab and Maharashtra.